1. USE OF REMOTE CAMERAS IN WILDLIFE ECOLOGY
Shawn L. Locke, Israel D. Parker, and Roel R. Lopez
Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University College Station, TX 77843, USA

2. Battery Longevity Battery longevity is a product of:
temperature
age
number of pictures taken
flash configuration or presence
battery quality
Battery life has advanced significantly and many models can run up to 150 days or take ≥1,000 photos.

3. Data Storage Data storage capacity
Continues to improve with relatively inexpensive storage units (e.g., SD cards) holding thousands of pictures and videos.
This is a vast improvement over film-based cameras that are generally limited to a maximum of 36 images before film replacement.

4. Picture Quality Picture quality
Images recorded by cameras can vary in quality and size depending on equipment specifications.
Researchers must balance resolution requirements with storage capabilities.
Researchers should determine storage and resolution requirements prior to beginning research or management activities.

5. DATA MANAGEMENT Data management
A data management plan is important prior to the initiation of a camera project.
Studies involving cameras can generate thousands of images therefore, organization and data storage are critical.
It is helpful to have photo editing software to enhance photo quality and clarity for interpretation.

6. REMOTE CAMERAS Two types of remote cameras:
Active infrared or beam-break sensors use an infrared emitter and receiver creating a beam of infrared light or trip line.
Passive infrared sensors detect movement and radiation emitted by animals within a field of view.

7. Remote Camera Features

8. Active Infrared Cameras
Active infrared camera (Trailmaster®)

9. Passive Infrared Cameras
Passive infrared camera (Moultrie D40)

10. Types of Data Gathered Remote cameras can assist in determining:
Occupancy and distribution
Population estimation
Nest predation
Animal behavior and activity
Diet

12. Thermal Infrared Cameras
A limiting factor in studying mammals is observing them.
Mammals often can be cryptic or nocturnal thereby making them difficult to see using only human vision.
The use of thermal infrared imagery devices can aid researchers by converting the nonvisible, infrared spectrum (0.8–14.0 µm) into a visible spectrum.

13. Pros and Cons of Thermal Cameras
Works well in optimal conditions
Declining costs
Detects spectrum outside of human vision
Increasing utility in wildlife disease
Cons
Cost
Detection varies among vegetation structure
Animal size impacts detectability
Poikilothermic organisms are problematic
Seasonally dependent

14. Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) Cameras
Rio Grande wild turkeys foraging

15. Innovative Camera Techniques
Improvements in component miniaturization and capability, storage capacity, build quality, and price have spurred the use of cameras (both still and video) in ecology in a variety of new directions.
Companies are now designing camera (both still and video) systems to answer specific research questions.

16. Examples of Camera Techniques
Peep cameras for monitoring nest activity
Live streaming video broadcast on the internet of nesting/denning activities (e.g., bald eagles, bears)
Cameras on small remote controlled aircraft
Telescoping or flexible tubing cameras for snaking into dens or burrows

17. Peep Cameras
Peep camera monitoring red-cockaded woodpecker nest cavity

18. SUMMARY
Cameras are a useful tool in wildlife ecology, but their usefulness depends upon the quality of the study design and capabilities of the operator.
Cameras are appropriate in research where:
humans would cause disturbance to wildlife behavior,
extended observational periods are required,
observation must take place in dangerous, inclement, or remote areas,
permanent and verifiable data is needed, or
different capabilities from the human eye are required.