1. Aristotle (384-322 BCE): What is Virtue? PHIL 1003 Semester I 2008-09

2. Tutorials Tutor: Arthur Chin arthurchin2@yahoo.com.hk Week of: 1 st : Sept 29th - Oct 3rd 2 nd : Oct 20th - 24th 3 rd : Nov 10th - 14th 4 th : Nov 24 - 28th

3. Answer to question: What causes downfall of Plato’s best regime? Inevitable degeneration of best regime (Rep., 546a-e); Fault of imperfect matings: how can this happen? –Platonic numerology and astrology; –Calculate the ‘number’ for a human creature; no one understands it! –Matings out of sync with this number; Result: children fall short of ideal; Classes become mixed, no more pure golds; Passionate pursue their ambitions, creating oligarchy –rule of the few in their own self-interest.

4. Aristotle’s Contributions Major ethical theorist; Major political thinker; –theorist of democracy: qualified approval –Cf. Platonic critique of democracy = rule of the worst elements; Biologist; Used scientific method to analyze political institutions; Logic = the ‘organon’, or tool.

5. Aristotle’s life 384 BCE born in Stagira (Macedonia) –therefore could not become an Athenian citizen; Son of a court physician, Nicomachus; 367-347 studied in Plato’s Academy, Athens 347 Plato dies; Aristotle in Assos, Mytilene and Macedonia; –In Asia Minor studies marine organisms; 342 tutors the Macedonian prince, Alexander; –little discernible influence 335 returns to Athens, founds Lyceum; 322 dies in Chalcis.

6. Ancient Greece

7. School of Athens by Raphael (16 th cent.)

8. What this picture illustrates Plato pointing at sky, Aristotle at earth. Why?

9. Aristotle’s Method Empirical and concrete: based in biology –Make observations of phenomena –Draw conclusions on that basis Social and ethical questions: examine actual views on an issue or topic; Find out what the telos, or goal of sth is; That will tell you its nature, and What its good is.

10. An acorn’s telos

11. Aristotle’s idea of The Good No one good or Form of the Good (cf. Plato) Many goods—the good of each thing, organism, person, e.g. –The good of cats –The good of trees –The good of…. The good is determined by examining its nature We understand the nature of a thing by looking at its goal or telos

12. Hierarchy Central idea to ethics and politics of both Plato and Aristotle.

13. What Plato and Aristotle share: soul-society analogy Plato Soul: 3 pts: –reason, –passion –desires Society: 3 pts: rulers, guardians people Aristotle Soul: 2 pts: reason desires Society: 2 pts: rulers (rotation among citizens) ruled: citizens and others

14. Aristotle’s view of the soul Reason Desires

15. Aristotle’s Hierarchy of Beings 3 kinds of soul: –Vegetative: plants –Sensitive (having senses): animals –Rational and active: man These ideas still used in the 17 th century by Descartes. What is unique to man is reasoning ability and his highest good/goal/telos is to exercise that ability in action. Plants and animals have different goals than man because they have different natures/souls.

16. Hierarchy of goods, sciences Critique of Plato’s Form of the Good (1096a15) –Not one good, but many Good of city at top of ‘hierarchy of goods’ –Good of individual subordinate (NE, 1.2) –Why? Not one science of good, but many (1096a30) Controlling science = political science –All other sciences subordinate—generalship, household mgmt, rhetoric –Why?

17. What is the Good for man? For sake of which we do things Many of our activities are instrumental, only means to the end Characteristics of the Good for man: –Complete –Self-sufficient –Choiceworthy (having merit) –Active

18. The Good = happiness, but what is happiness? Is it doing well or living well? Is it the opposite of whatever state in which one finds oneself? Is it freedom from pain? Many believe it is gratification of desire, or –Honor, being admired, respected –Wealth—”not the good we are seeking” (1096a) –Health –Having fun Many of these, e.g. wealth, health, are instruments we use to pursue the good.

19. “…the human good turns out to be… the soul’s activity that expresses virtue” (NE, 1098a20)

20. You are not born virtuous; You must become virtuous.

21. Virtue Everything has a virtue Virtue means acting well, in accordance with one’s nature; –Slaves, –plants, –animals, –humans all have virtues; Man’s particular virtue = acting from reason, for his community (polis).

22. Virtue The end of man is to act virtuously; Virtue is an activity; It makes us happy Virtue of character; We can become habituated to it through repetition of fine actions Education in virtue is necessary.

23. The Virtues Virtue entails action: –Even philosophy is action, and therefore virtuous Mean between extremes of behavior: Examples: –Courage: mean b/w foolish risk-taking and cowardice –Generosity: mean b/w avarice and profligacy –Truthfulness: b/w boastfulness and self-depreciation –Even-temperedness: b/w short temper and apathy

24. The question is not: What is virtue? BUT How to become good (Bk 2.2)

25. What is ethics? Moral virtue (ēthikē) derived from habits (ethos)

26. So what is really central: How your habits are formed; do you have a good upbringing or a bad one, do you live in a city w/ good laws or bad ones? (Bk 2.1-2)

27. Forming habits: Music and Censorship Plato Music: Phrygian harmonia; Dorian for courage Censor poetry, b/c poetry attributes responsibility for evil to god (Rep., 378a, 380b-c). Aristotle (Pol., Bk 7) Music: Lydian harmonia Avoid performing music b/c it is shared with slaves or other subordinates Censor lewd dramas-- bad for children.

28. Preferred instrument (children only): the Kithara [lyre]

29. A base instrument: the Auloi [Pipes]

30. Any contemporary examples? How are children’s habits formed today?

31. Can you be virtuous under a bad regime? What do you think?

32. Question In Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle argues that a child can not be truly happy because "age prevents him from doing [things acquired by virtue]... and happiness requires both complete virtue and a complete life" (1100a). During my childhood I can recall times where I felt completely happy even though I was not virtuous or of the age of complete life. Do you agree or disagree with Aristotle's views on happiness for a child? Why/Why not?