1. Infancy to Adulthood Week 18.2

2. Today… All the things you wanted to go over before the test:
Male and female sex hormones + triggers to sexual behaviour Brain development in adolescence Nature + Nurture and twin studies / adolescent development Peer groups and their influences Substance abuse and high experimentation Adults and their sense of value later in life Anorexia and eating disorders Psychological brain development in adolescence – risk taking behaviour/choices and decision making Early maturation issues for girls Contributing factors related to: depression, drug abuse

3. Male and female sex hormones + triggers to sexual behaviour
In adolescence, the hypothalamus signals to the pituitary gland and gonads to release of sex hormones

6. Male and female sex hormones + triggers to sexual behaviour
Men and women both possess estrogen and testosterone.
However, estrogen levels are higher in women and testosterone in men.

8. Brain development in adolescence
As well as the hormonal changes we looked at, other changes happen in the adolescent brain.
During adolescence, the brain goes through a ‘pruning’ period, where parts of the grey matter connections are removed and others strengthened.
This pruning process begins in the back of the brain. The front part of the brain, the prefrontal cortex and the frontal lobes, is remodelled last.
The prefrontal cortex is the decision-making part of the brain, responsible for the ability to plan and think about the consequences of actions, solve problems and control impulses.

9. Brain development in adolescence
Because the prefrontal cortex is still developing, teenagers might rely on a part of the brain called the amygdala to make decisions and solve problems more than adults do. The amygdala is associated with emotions, impulses, aggression and instinctive behaviour.
The teenage brain is built to seek out new experiences, risks and sensations – it’s all part of refining those brain connections.
Teenagers don’t always have a lot of self-control or good judgment and are more prone to risk-taking behaviour. This is because the self-monitoring, problem-solving and decision-making part of the brain – the prefrontal cortex – develops last. Hormones are also thought to contribute to impulsive and risky behaviour in teens.

10. Nature + Nurture ‘Nature’ refers to a person’s genetic predispositions
‘Nurture’ refers to a person’s life environment
The ‘nature / nurture debate’ argues as to which has more influence on determining the kind of person we are
In reality, we are a combination of both influences

11. Twin studies / adoption studies
In studying the relative effects of nature and nurture, developmental psychologists rely on twin studies and adoption studies.
Twins are useful for research into nature and nurture because it is possible to compare two people with identical heredity factors against different environmental factors that they may have experienced
Adoption studies are also useful. They offer the ability to compare an adopted child to both their biological siblings and their adoptive siblings
There are many potential issues with adoption studies, including the age a child was adopted and how similar their adoptive environment is to their biological family environment

12. Peer groups and their influences
Peer groups have increasing influence during the adolescent years.
Peer groups allow adolescents to explore identity possibilities and engage in experimentation
Acceptance by a peer group can be of high importance and can influence behaviour (peer pressure)

13. Substance abuse and high experimentation
Experimentation and risk-taking behaviour are commonplace in adolescents
Substance abuse can be one of these behaviours. The most commonly abused substance is alcohol, followed by illicit drugs
Alcohol use in teenagers is on the rise
Risk-taking behaviour and experimentation can be part of role confusion or identity diffusion
A prevalence of risky behaviours can also be linked to mental health or self-esteem issues

14. Erikson Overview Stage 1: Infancy (birth to 18 months)
Basic Conflict: Trust vs. Mistrust
Important Events: Feeding
Outcome: Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

15. Erikson Overview Stage 2: Early Childhood (2 to 3 years)
Basic Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Important Events: Toilet Training
Outcome: Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

16. Erikson Overview Stage 3: Preschool (3 to 5 years)
Basic Conflict: Initiative vs. Guilt
Important Events: Exploration
Outcome: Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

17. Erikson Overview Stage 4: School Age (6 to 11 years)
Basic Conflict: Industry vs. Inferiority
Important Events: School
Outcome: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

18. Erikson Overview Stage 5: Adolescence (12 to 18 years)
Basic Conflict: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Important Events: Social Relationships
Outcome: Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

19. Erikson Overview Stage 6: Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years)
Basic Conflict: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Important Events: Relationships
Outcome: Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

20. Erikson Overview Stage 7 : Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years)
Basic Conflict: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Important Events: Work and Parenthood
Outcome: Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

21. Erikson Overview Stage 8 : Maturity (65 to death)
Basic Conflict: Ego Integrity vs. Despair
Important Events: Reflection on life
Outcome: Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

22. Anorexia and eating disorders
About 1% of teenagers develop anorexia
Around 2% develop bulimia
Over 90% of eating disorders are in females, however they can all be experienced by males

23. Anorexia and eating disorders
Factors that increase the risk for anorexia or bulimia include:
low self-esteem
poor coping skills
childhood physical or sexual abuse
early sexual maturation
perfectionism

24. Early maturation issues
Girls who mature early are likely to feel less satisfied with their bodies
They are more likely to experience self-esteem issues, teasing and interactions with older boys
Boys who mature early are likely to feel more satisfied with their bodies

25. Sexual and Gender Identity
Physical development plays a role in gender identity
As teenagers go through puberty, hormones are released and the body develops adult male or female characteristics
These changes may be welcomed or not by the teen
Some teens will experience gender dysphoria, which is distress and discomfort with their assigned sex

26. Sexual and Gender Identity
Gender is a social construct
People who are raised in societies that are accepting of non-binary or self-identified gender identities exhibit less stigma and stress than those where set birth sex identities or gender binaries are the norm

28. Gender Stereotypes

29. Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes can have a basis in research (or personal experience)
However, research needs to be interpreted carefully
For example, a NSW study that found that 8 year old boys have lower average reading levels compared to girls of the same age
This does not necessarily prove that boys are ‘worse at reading than girls’
There are many possible explanations for the outcome (developmental levels, societal influences, sample size etc.)
An accurate interpretation would be that on average, 8 year old boys in NSW have a lower reading level compared to girls the same age. There are of course outliers of both genders.

30. Today we covered ….
All the things you requested a recap on!