1. ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING (Subject Code - 2110004)
ECE
ELEMENTS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING (Subject Code )
Teaching Scheme
Credits
Examination Marks
Total L P C
Theory Marks
Practical Marks
Marks
ESE PA
(E)
(M)
Viva (V)
(I) 4 2 6 70
30*
30#
20**
150
L- Lectures; P- Practical; C- Credit; ESE- End Semester Examination; PA- Progressive Assessment
Passing marks for ESE (E) will be 23 out of 70.
Passing marks for PA (M) will be 12 out of 30.
Passing marks for ESE Practical (V) will be 15 out of 30.
Passing marks for PA (I) will be 10 out of 20.
Rupang Shah

2. Branches of Civil Engineering
Surveying
Construction Engineering
Transportation Engineering
Fluid Mechanics
Irrigation Engineering
Structural Engineering
Geotechnical Engineer
Foundation Engineering
Environmental Engineering
Quantity Surveying
Earthquake Engineering, etc.,

3. Definition of Surveying
Surveying is one of the basic area in civil engineering which includes linear and angular measurement of the relative positions of the points on the surface of the earth. Or Surveying is the art and science of determining the relative positions of various points or stations on the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distances, angles and taking the details of these points and by preparing a map or plan to any suitable scale. Thus, in surveying, the measurements are taken in the horizontal and vertical planes.

4. Fundamental principles of surveying
To work from whole to part
To fix or to locate a new point or station by at least two independent measurements or processes
whole to part
part to whole

5. Second Principle of Surveying
To fix or to locate a new point or station by at least two independent measurements or processes R . P Q . . R R L1 L2 α β Q P P Q

6. Aims of Surveying Or Purposes of Surveying Or Objects of Surveying
To prepare a map or plan to show the relative positions of the objects on the surface of the earth.
To fix the boundaries of districts, states and countries.
To Determine areas and volumes.
To layout or to mark the positions of the proposed structures on the ground. e.g. Building, Canal, Roads, Dams, Railway, Airports, etc.,

7. Applications of surveying Or Uses of Surveying
To prepare a topographical map which shows hills, valleys, rivers, forests, villages, towns etc.,
To Prepare a Cadastral map which shows the boundaries of fields, plots, houses and other properties.
To prepare contour map to know the topography of the area to find out the best possible site for dam, canals, buildings, roads, railways, bridges etc.,
Military survey is used for determining points of strategic importance, etc.,

8. Plan and Map
Plan Map
The graphical representation is called a plan if the scale is large.
A plan is drawn on a large scale.
3.Scale 1 cm = 10 m or < 10 m
4.On a plan, generally horizontal distances and directions are shown.
5.A plan is drawn for small area.
e.g. – plan of house
– plan of bridge
The graphical representation is called a map if the scale is small.
A map is drawn on a small scale.
Scale 1 cm = 100 m or > 100 m
On a topographic map, vertical distances (Elevations) are also shown by contour lines.
A map is drawn for large area.
e.g. – map of Gujarat
– map of India

9. Primary Divisions of Surveying
1. Plane Surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying

10. Differentiate between Plane surveying and Geodetic Surveying
Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
The earth surface is considered as a plane surface,
i.e. curvature of the earth is ignored.
2.This survey is done for smaller area less than 250 Km2 (< 250 Km2 )
3.Comparetively low accuracy required.
4.The line joining any two stations is considered to be straight.
5.The triangle formed by any three points is considered as a plane.
6.This Survey is not carried out by the survey of India department.
The earth surface is considered as a curved surface,
i.e. curvature of the earth is considered.
2.This survey is done for large area greater than 250 Km2 (>250 Km2)
3.High accuracy required.
4.The line joining any two stations is considered as a curved line.
5.The triangle formed by any three points is considered as a spherical.
6.This Survey is carried out by the survey of India department.

11. Classification of Surveying
Based on…………
Based on instruments
Based on Purpose (Object)
Based on method
Based on Nature of field
Based on Primary Divisions

12. Classification of Surveying Based on instruments
Chain Survey
Compass Survey
Chain and Compass Survey
Plane Table Survey
Theodolite Survey
Tacheometry Survey
Levelling Survey
Photographic and aerial Survey
EDM Survey
Remote Sensing

13. Classification of Surveying Based on Purpose (Object)
ECE
Classification of Surveying Based on Purpose (Object)
Geological Survey
Mine Survey
Archaeological Survey
Military Survey
Control Survey
Topographical Survey
Cadastral Survey
Route Survey
Engineering Survey
Construction Survey
Rupang Shah

14. Classification of Surveying Based on method
Triangulation Surveying
– The entire area is divided into a network of triangles
Traversing
– A traverse is a circuit of survey lines. It may be opened or closed. When the linear measurements are done with a chain & a tape and the directions or horizontal angles are measured with a compass or a theodolite respectively is called traversing.

15. Classification of Surveying Based on Nature of field
Land Survey
Hydrographic Survey
Astronomic Survey
Arial Survey

16. Classification of Surveying Based on Primary Divisions
1. Plane Surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying

17. R.F. (Representative Fraction)
Distance on Plan or Map
Corresponding Distance on Ground
R.F. =
Example : Scale is 1 cm = 5 m find R.F. ?
R.F. (Representative Fraction) = = =
.˙. R.F. = 1 : 500

18. Examples

19. An area of 58 cm2 of a map represents an area of 4698 m2 what is R.F. ?
Solution: cm2 = 4698 m2
.˙. 1 cm2 = 4698 / 58 m2
.˙. 1 cm = m
.˙. 1 cm = 9 m
1 cm
9 m
1 cm
900 cm
R.F. (Representative Fraction) = = 1
900 =
.˙. R.F. = 1 : 900

20. 1 hectares = ____________ m2
10,000
1 acre = ____________ m2
1 mile = ____________ km
1.6093

21. Now, 1 hectares = ____________ m2 .˙. Scale 1 cm = ____________ m
A plan represents an area of 7.5 Hectares and measures 3 cm x 5 cm, Find the scale of the map and R.F.
Solution: Hectares = (3 x 5) cm2
Now, 1 hectares = ____________ m2
10,000
.˙. 7.5 x m2 = 15 cm2
.˙. 15 cm2 = m2
.˙. 1 cm2 = ____________ m2
5000
.˙. 1 cm = m2
.˙. Scale 1 cm = ____________ m
70.71
R.F. (Representative Fraction) =
1 cm
70.71 m
1 cm
7071 cm = 1
7071
.˙. R.F. = 1 : 7071 =

22. ECE
Scale :
Scale is the basic requirement for the preparation of Plans or Maps.
Scale is used to represent large distance on paper.
If the scale of the Map is 1 cm = 10 m it means that 1 cm on paper represents 10 m on the ground.
Rupang Shah

23. Types of Scale : Plain Scale Diagonal Scale Chord Scale Vernier Scale
ECE
Types of Scale :
Plain Scale
Diagonal Scale
Chord Scale
Vernier Scale
Rupang Shah

24. Example : 1
Construct a Plain Scale of R.F. 1/500 to measure up to a meter and represent 37 m on the scale.
R.F. = 1
500
.˙. 1 cm = 500 cm
.˙. 1 cm = 5 m
.˙. 5 m cm
10 m ?
= 2 cm
.˙. Draw 2 cm = 10 m
Then, 2 cm Divide in 10 Divisions
.˙. 2 mm = 1 m
Then, Draw figure….

25. Then, 5 cm Divide in 10 Divisions .˙. 5 mm = 1 m Then, Draw figure………
Example : 2
Construct a Plain Scale 1 cm = 2 m and show on it 12 m.
Solution :
2 m cm
10 m ?
= 5 cm
.˙. Draw 5 cm = 10 m
Then, 5 cm Divide in 10 Divisions
.˙. 5 mm = 1 m
Then, Draw figure………

26. Then, 2 cm Divide in 10 Divisions .˙. 2 mm = 1 m Then, Draw figure………
Example : 3
Construct a Diagonal Scale 1 cm = 5 m and show on it 45.3 m.
Solution :
5 m cm
10 m ?
= 2 cm
.˙. Draw 2 cm = 10 m
Then, 2 cm Divide in 10 Divisions
.˙. 2 mm = 1 m
Then, Draw figure………

27. Plain Scale:
A Plain scale is one on which it is possible to measure two dimensions only.
For Example,
Meters and Decimeters,
(1 m and 0.1 m)
Hundreds and Tenths,
(100 and 10)
Units and Tenths, etc.,
(1 and 10)

28. Diagonal Scale:
A Diagonal scale is one on which it is possible to measure three dimensions.
For Example,
Meters, Decimeters and Centimeters
(1 m, 0.1 m and 0.01 m)
Units, Tenths and Hundreds
(1, 10 and 100)

29. Classification of Scale:
Large Scale :
1 cm = 10 m or Less than 10 m (< 10 m)
Medium Scale :
1 cm = 10 m to 100 m
Small Scale :
1 cm = 100 m or more than 100 m (> 100 m)

30. Linear measurements Methods :
Linear Measurements are carried out for finding out measurements in horizontal plane.
Methods :
Direct methods
Optical methods
E.D.M. methods
(E.D.M = Electromagnetic Distance Measuring instrument )
Or (Method Based on Electronics)

31. In Methods of Direct Measurements
Chaining
– Chaining is used to measure horizontal distance either by a chain or a tape.
Instruments Used in Chaining
Chain or Tape
Arrows
Pegs
Ranging Rods
Plumb Bob

32. Fig. Arrow

33. Types of Tapes : Cloth Tape Fiber Glass Tape Metallic Tape Steel Tape
Invar Tape
Invar Tape :
– 36 % Nickel & 64 % Steel.
– It is not affected by change of Temperature.
– It is Very Accurate.

34. Operations in Chain Surveying
Chaining
Ranging
Offsetting

35. 1. Chaining
Chaining on Level Ground
Chaining on Sloping Ground

36. A. Chaining on Level Ground
Fixing the Stations
Unfolding the Chain
Ranging
Measuring the distance (Survey Lines)
Folding the Chain
B. Chaining on Sloping Ground
Direct Method
Indirect Method –
Method – I
Method – II, etc.,

37. 2. Ranging :
The Process of locating or establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two survey stations or between the two fixed points in the field is known as Ranging. Or
The Process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two survey stations in the field is known as Ranging.

38. Or
If the distance to be measured between two survey stations is less than one chain then the distance can be measured directly, but if the length of the survey line is greater than one chain length, intermediate points are to be located, in order that the chain is pulled along a straight line.
The Method of locating or establishing intermediate points on a straight line between two survey stations or between the two fixed points in the field is known as Ranging.

39. 2. Ranging
Direct Ranging
Indirect Ranging Or
Reciprocal Ranging

40. A. Direct Ranging B. Indirect Ranging Or Reciprocal Ranging
Ranging by eye
Ranging by line Ranger
Fig……
B. Indirect Ranging Or
Reciprocal Ranging
Fig…..

43. Ranging by eye

44. Line Ranger

46. Indirect Ranging Or Reciprocal Ranging

47. 3. Offsetting or Offset : Perpendicular Offsets Oblique Offsets
Distances are measured from the survey lines to the object right or left of the survey line are called as offsets.
Perpendicular Offsets
Oblique Offsets
Long Offsets
Short Offsets
Swing Offsets
≥ 15 m
< 15 m
– Offset taken by Swinging tape is called swing offset. It is one kind of Perpendicular Offset.

48. Fig. Perpendicular - Offset-by-Swinging

51. Instruments used for laying offsets :
1. Optical Square
Round Optical Square
Indian Optical Square
2. Prism Square
3. Cross Staff
Open Cross Staff
French Cross Staff
Simple Cross Staff (Wooden)
Adjustable Cross Staff

52. Round Optical Square Or Optical-Square-Circular

53. Indian Optical Square

54. Fig. Prism Square

57. Open Cross Staff

58. Open Cross Staff

59. Open Cross Staff with Rod

60. French Cross Staff
45° and 90°

61. Simple Cross Staff (Wooden)

62. Simple Cross Staff (Wooden)

63. Simple Cross Staff (Wooden) with Stand

64. Adjustable Cross Staff

67. Main Line, Base Line Check Line & Tie Line

70. Selection of Survey Stations
The Following points should be considered while selecting survey stations.
The station should be intervisible.
Survey lines should be minimum as far as possible.
Station should form well conditioned triangles.
– (Interior angles not less than 30° and not more than 120°)
Station point should be located that tie lines, check lines, base line, etc. can be formed.
Station points should be selected within the boundary of the area to be surveyed.
The survey lines should be taken through fairly level ground as far as practicable.

72. Continue in PPT-2