1. PS124-11 Introduction to Psychology December 12, 2011 Memory

2. Memory is the ability to store and retrieve information over a period of time. Two types of memory, first is explicit – knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered. Example: Remembering to drive from driving lessons. Second, is implicit, the influence of experience on behavior. Example: Improving driving skills as a result of driving lessons.

3. Explicit Memory Episodic and Semantic Episodic – firsthand experiences. Semantic – knowledge of facts and concepts of the world. Measures of explicit memory Recall memory test – involves bringing from memory information previously remembered. Recognition memory test – involves determining whether information has been seen or learned before. Relearning (savings) – a measure of explicit memory involving how more quickly information can be processed or learned when it is studied again after being previously learned and forgotten.

4. Implicit Memory Procedural, Classical conditioning, and Priming Procedural – refers to unexplainable knowledge of how to do things. Classical conditioning – associating neutral stimulus with another stimulus creating a natural occurring response. Priming – refers to changes in behavior as a result of experiences that have happened frequently or recently.

5. Stages of Memory Sensory memory – brief storage of sensory information. Iconic memory – visual sensory memory Echoic memory – auditory sensory memory Short-term memory (STM) – where small amounts of information can be stored for more than a few seconds but less than a minute. Working memory – process use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store information in STM. Long-term memory – memory storage that can hold information for days, months, and years.

6. Improve STM Maintenance Rehearsal – process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory. Example – saying a phone number out loud Chunking – process of organizing information into smaller groupings, to increase the number of items that can be held in STM. Example – MTVCNNABCFOX; can be remembered if broken down; MTV CNN ABC FOX

7. Encoding & Retrieval Encoding - process which we place things that we experience into memory. Retrieval – process of reactivating information that has been stored in memory.

8. Improving Memory Elaborative encoding – material is better remembered if processed more fully. Self-reference – material is better remembered if it is linked to thoughts about self. Forgetting curve – information learned drops off rapidly with time. Spacing effect – information is learned better when it is studied in shorter periods spaced over time. Overlearning – continue to learn even if we think we know the information well.

9. Improving Memory Context-dependent learning – there’s better retrieval when it occurs in the same situation in which we learned the material. State-dependent learning – there’ better retrieval when we are in the same psychological state as we were when we learned the material. Primacy effect – we tend to better remember stimuli that are presented early in a list. Recency effect – we tend to better remember stimuli that are presented later in a list.

10. Improving Memory Retroactive interference – occurs when learning something new impairs our ability to retrieve information that was learned earlier. Proactive interference – earlier learning impairs our ability to encode information that we try to learn later.

11. Structures of LTM Categories – network of associated memories that have features in common with each other. Prototypes – when members of the category is more average or typical of the category. Schemas – pattern of knowledge in long-term memory that helps us organize information.

12. Cognitive Biases Cognitive biases – errors in memory or judgment that are caused by inappropriate use of cognitive processes. Source monitoring – ability to accurately identify the source of a memory Sleeper effect – refers to attitude change that occurs over time when we forget the source of information. Confirmation bias – tendency to verify and confirm our existing memories rather than to challenge and disconfirm them.

13. Cognitive Biases Functional fixedness – when schemas prevent us from seeing and using information in new and nontraditional ways. Misinformation effect – errors in memory that occur when new but incorrect information influences existing accurate memories. Overconfidence – when we are certain that our memories and judgments are accurate than we should be. Flashbulb memory – vivid and emotional memory of an unusual event that we believe we remember well. Salience – when some stimuli grab our attention and make them more likely to be remembered.

14. Cognitive Biases Heuristic – an information process strategy that is useful in many cases but may lead to errors when misapplied. Representativeness heuristic – tendency to make judgments according to how well the event matches our expectations. Availability heuristic – is the idea that things that come to mid easily are seen as more common. Cognitive accessibility – is the idea that some memories are more highly activated than others. Counterfactual thinking – when we replay events such that they turn out differently.