1. Memory Chapter 7 Continued…

2. How is knowledge organized?  Clustering: the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups  Conceptual Hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on common properties among items  Clustering: the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups  Conceptual Hierarchy: multilevel classification system based on common properties among items

3. How is knowledge organized?  Schemas: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event  People are more likely to remember things that are consistent with the schemas than things that are not and people sometimes exhibit better recall of things that violate their schema-based expectations  Schemas: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event  People are more likely to remember things that are consistent with the schemas than things that are not and people sometimes exhibit better recall of things that violate their schema-based expectations

4. How is knowledge organized?  Semantic Networks: consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts  Proven to be useful in explaining why thinking about one word can make closely related words easier to remember  Semantic Networks: consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts  Proven to be useful in explaining why thinking about one word can make closely related words easier to remember

5. Semantic Networks

6. Retrieval  Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach  Usually happens about once a week – especially with names  Clearly constitutes a failure in retrieval  Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach  Usually happens about once a week – especially with names  Clearly constitutes a failure in retrieval

7. Retrieval  Retrieval Cues: stimuli that help gain access to memories  Reinstating the Context of an Event: this is trying to recall a memory by putting yourself back in the context in which it occurred – this involves working with context cues to aid retrieval  Context Cues: often facilitate the retrieval of information  Used successfully in legal matters and investigations  Retrieval Cues: stimuli that help gain access to memories  Reinstating the Context of an Event: this is trying to recall a memory by putting yourself back in the context in which it occurred – this involves working with context cues to aid retrieval  Context Cues: often facilitate the retrieval of information  Used successfully in legal matters and investigations

8. Misinformation Effect  Reconstructing Memories and the Misinformation Effect: when you retrieve information from long-term memory you aren’t able to pull up a “mental videotape” that provides an exact replay  to some degree, memories are just reconstructions of the past that may be distorted and may include details that did not actually occur  Reconstructing Memories and the Misinformation Effect: when you retrieve information from long-term memory you aren’t able to pull up a “mental videotape” that provides an exact replay  to some degree, memories are just reconstructions of the past that may be distorted and may include details that did not actually occur

9. Misinformation Effect  Elizabeth Loftus  Researched the misinformation effect and found that reconstructive distortions show up very frequently in eyewitness testimony  ｧ 3 Stages  1. View event  2. Exposed to information about event, some of which is misleading  3. The recall of the original event is tested to see if the post-event misinformation alters the memory of the actual event  Elizabeth Loftus  Researched the misinformation effect and found that reconstructive distortions show up very frequently in eyewitness testimony  ｧ 3 Stages  1. View event  2. Exposed to information about event, some of which is misleading  3. The recall of the original event is tested to see if the post-event misinformation alters the memory of the actual event

10. Misinformation Effect  Ex  subjects shown a video of an accident and then “grilled” to provide testimony  Biasing information was introduced  Words such as “hit” and “smashed into” were used  A week later, recall of the event was tested and people who were asked questions with vivid imagery words like “smashed into” remembered seeing things like broken glass (which wasn’t present)  Why are there distortions in eyewitness testimony?  People’s Schema’s put words like “smashed into” and broken glass or tons of damage together in the same category  Ex  subjects shown a video of an accident and then “grilled” to provide testimony  Biasing information was introduced  Words such as “hit” and “smashed into” were used  A week later, recall of the event was tested and people who were asked questions with vivid imagery words like “smashed into” remembered seeing things like broken glass (which wasn’t present)  Why are there distortions in eyewitness testimony?  People’s Schema’s put words like “smashed into” and broken glass or tons of damage together in the same category

11. Measures of Forgetting  Retention:  the proportion of material retained (remembered)  Recall:  Reproduction of information on your own without any cues  Recognition:  The ability to select previously learned information from an array of options  Relearning:  memorizing information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before  Retention:  the proportion of material retained (remembered)  Recall:  Reproduction of information on your own without any cues  Recognition:  The ability to select previously learned information from an array of options  Relearning:  memorizing information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before

12. Why We Forget?  Ineffective Coding  Information may have never been inserted into memory properly  Pseudoforgetting:  you can’t really forget what you haven’t learned  Another name for Ineffective Coding  Ineffective Coding  Information may have never been inserted into memory properly  Pseudoforgetting:  you can’t really forget what you haven’t learned  Another name for Ineffective Coding  Decay Theory  Forgetting occurs because memory traces fade over time  Can we really forget what has been stored in Long Term Memory permanently?  Decay Theory  Forgetting occurs because memory traces fade over time  Can we really forget what has been stored in Long Term Memory permanently?

13. Why We Forget?  Interference Theory  Retroactive Interference:  new info impairs the retention of previously learned material  Interference Theory  Retroactive Interference:  new info impairs the retention of previously learned material  Proactive Interference:  retention of previously learned material interferes with the learning of new material  Proactive Interference:  retention of previously learned material interferes with the learning of new material

14. Why We Forget?  Retrieval Failure  A mismatch occurs between retrieval cues and the encoding  Retrieval Failure  A mismatch occurs between retrieval cues and the encoding  Motivated Forgetting  People keep embarassing or painful events buried in the unconscious  Also called  Repression  Motivated Forgetting  People keep embarassing or painful events buried in the unconscious  Also called  Repression

15. Think About It…  When it comes to school & your study habits, what causes you to forget the most?  Discuss your answers with the class. Are there similarities among your answers? Why?  When it comes to school & your study habits, what causes you to forget the most?  Discuss your answers with the class. Are there similarities among your answers? Why?