1. Beginning Writing

2. SENTENCE Has a subject and a verb Expresses a complete thought (does not need a mama) Example: The can ran up a tree to get away from the dog.

3. CLAUSES: TWO TYPES Independent Clause (aka sentence): Has a subject and verb Can stand by itself Expresses a complete thought Example: The cat ran.

4. CLAUSES (cont.) Dependent Clause Has a subject and verb Cannot stand by itself (does not make sense on its own) Is an incomplete thought Example: Although the cat climbed the tree

5. PHRASES A group of words that function as a unit Does not contain both a subject and verb There are many types of phrases: The following are the major types

6. Noun Phrase A group of words functioning as one noun Example 1 : The cat in the tree Example 2: The black cat

7. Verb Phrase A group of words functioning as one verb Example 1: am learning Example 2: has been sitting

8. Prepositional Phrase A group of words a group of words that links a sentence’s subjects and verbs to other parts of the sentence. It contains a preposition and an object and may contain modifiers It locates things in time Example: in the morning It positions things in space Example: by the library It indicates direction Example: Around the corner

9. Examples of Prepositional Phrases Around the corner After dinner On the table To the mall In an hour Before school Through the doorway Under the bed Above the ground

10. COMMAS: 4 USES USE 1: To insert information into a sentence that isn’t necessary to the sentence’s meaning Example: Bob, who is somewhat shy, is well liked by everyone. Example: My neighbor, Mrs. Jones, is very nosy.

11. COMMAS: CONT. Use 2: to link clauses to other parts of a sentence Use with coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) to join 2 or more independent clauses Example: I like to swim in the lake, but I wouldn’t want to swim in a pond. Use to join dependent clauses that begin a sentence to the rest of the sentence Example: After we left the party, we went to eat at Denny’s.

12. COMMAS: cont. Use 3: To separate 3 or more items in a series Example 1: I bought apples, oranges, and bananas at the store. Example 2: When classes end, I need to finish my Christmas shopping, wrap presents, and pack for my trip.

13. COMMAS: cont. Use 4: After introductory words and phrases Example 1: Before dinner, we need to wash our hands. Example 2: Hey, can you pass the butter? Example 3: Whenever it gets cold, my knees hurt.

14. Semicolons Use a semicolon between two related, independent clauses Example: Bob is good at math; he plans to study accounting. Spaghetti is cheap; I buy it a lot. Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb Example: I hired a tutor for my English class; thus, I got an A. Example: Bob usually gets up at 6:00; however, today he is off work and can sleep in.

15. Avoiding Run-On Sentences A run on happens when you fuse two or more independent clauses without the necessary punctuation or coordinators. Example: I worked hard in class I earned a good grade. s v s v This contains TWO independent clauses (two simple sentences) with no punctuation or no coordinating conjunction. How to fix it? Step 1: check for 2 independent clauses Step 2: check that the clauses are separated by a coordinating conjunction and a comma, or by a semicolon.

16. Comma Splices This occurs when you separate independent clauses with a comma without a coordinating conjunction. Example: The rain came down hard, the river filled with water. How to fix it? You MUST use either a semicolon instead of the comma OR you must add a coordinating conjunction. The rain came down hard; the river filled with water. OR The rain came down hard, and the river filled with water.

17. Subordination When using a dependent clause to begin a sentence, use a comma after the dependent clause (the clause that is subordinate to the main clause) Ex: After the party was over, we went home to watch a movie. When using a dependent clause at the end of a sentence, don’t use a comma. Ex: We went home to watch a movie after the party was over.

18. Fragments A sentence fragment is a group of words that looks like a sentence and is punctuated like one but is not. It may: Be missing either a subject or a verb not make a complete statement Example: Because parents with small children want a car with room for a car seat, a stroller, diaper bags, and toys Example: For example, the controversy over air bags

19. Correcting Fragments Step 1: Check to make sure each group of words that looks like a sentence contains a subject and a verb Step 2: If you find a subject and verb, check to make sure the group of words makes a complete statement. If your “sentence” fails either of the above tests, add the missing components.

20. Modifiers Adjectives Describe nouns (people, places or things) green tree tall man Short, chubby dog Adverbs Describe verbs or adjectives Ran quickly Drove erratically Very scary bear

21. Subject-Verb Agreement Subjects and verbs must agree in number Use singular verbs with singular subjects Ex: Nicole runs out of the house every morning because she’s late. Use plural verbs with plural subjects Ex: They run with their track team.

22. Problems with S-V Agreement Collective nouns: In general, use singular verbs when the subject is a collective noun (one that refers to a group of people acting as a whole) The audience laughs at the comedian. The team plays at home this week. Everyone has his own preferences. Changed word order: sentences beginning with here or there There are crumbs on the floor Here are your books and pencils.

23. Pronouns and Antecedents Challenge: his, her or their? In the following sentences, tell whether you’d use his, her or their as the antecedent. Everybody in the store was talking on _____ phone. All of the people in the cooking contest prepared _____ best dishes. Nobody brought____ coat, even though it was cold outside. Neither of your cousins was able to give you ___ help with your math homework.

24. Possessives Use an apostrophe to show ownership Singular possessive = ‘s The rabbit’s fur Mike’s car Plural possessive = s’ Students’ books Kids’ bikes

25. Plurals Except in special cases, to make a noun plural, add –s or –es Shoe -> shoes Bag -> bags Flash -> flashes REMEMBER: ’s shows ownership S makes things plural