1. © T. M. Whitmore Last time: South Asia Geophysical Environmental regions Climate — key to life in S Asia Environmental problems & hazards Agriculture

2. © T. M. Whitmore Today: South Asia Green revolution & its impacts

3. © T. M. Whitmore How does it work? The “green revolution” consists of several things — “the package”  1) Dwarf, high yielding hybrid seeds (HYV)  Response to fertilizer  Photo period insensitive  Dwarf (less lodging; denser planting)  Genetic uniformity and so potential disease susceptibility

4. © T. M. Whitmore How does it work? (continued) “The package” continued  1) Dwarf, high yielding hybrid seeds (HYV)  2) Chemical Fertilizers (N-P-K)  Nitrogen (N, often as ammonia); Potassium (K, commonly in a form called potash); & Phosphorus (P)  3) Irrigation  Necessary to get the most out of fertilizers  4) Herbicides and pesticides  5) Often uses agricultural machinery

7. Pakistan – irrigated (dwarf HYV) wheat © 2005 The Great Mirror

8. Pakistan – irrigation technology © 2005 The Great Mirror

9. E India –mechanized rice harvest © 2005 The Great Mirror

10. © T. M. Whitmore How does it work? (continued) Lacking the “package”: (hybrid seeds, water, fertilizer, and chemicals)  Yields/ha are often NO better than traditional varieties Also needs infrastructure to develop and sustain the technological package  Roads, markets, banking and finance, rural credit, agricultural extension, research capacity, national integration and policy making

11. © T. M. Whitmore Changes in an Punjab (India) village 1960s-1970s Changes are not just increases in output – the proportion of crops sown changes  Wheat:  yields up 2x as HYV monocrop  increased proportion of village land  Rice  yields increase 1970s as HYV monocrop  none planted in 1960s so increased % of village land  Maize  yields up as HYV monocrop  increased proportion of village land

12. © T. M. Whitmore Changes (continued) Changes are not just increases in output – the proportion of crops sown changes  Cotton: no yield change; % down  Cane sugar: no yield change; % down  Bersim (a form of clover):  legume/fodder crop for rotations  little change in yield  decreased proportion of village land (stubble of maize/wheat used as fodder)

13. © T. M. Whitmore Changes in technology Irrigation:  increased for winter cropping;  better tube wells and mechanical pumps;  costly, but worth it with higher yields Soil amendments:  increased chemical inputs for rice, wheat, maize;  decreased intercropping and rotation Tools of cultivation:  hand tools and oxen plows still;  add some rental tractors

14. © T. M. Whitmore Changes in technology (continued) Transport:  ox carts & bicycles only before;  better ox carts, motorbikes, some trucks Use and type of animals  Decrease in cattle (traction)  Increase in buffalo (traction AND milk for local use and sale)

15. © M. Meade

17. © T. M. Whitmore Social Changes Human populations  Total numbers grew  Proportions in upper classes lower  Many moved out  or now manage larger farms; teach; etc.  Proportions in landless lower classes increased  now wage labor Tenure  number of holdings decreased - size of some increased

18. © T. M. Whitmore Social Changes (continued) Public works  improved roads  improved temple  local secondary school built Interconnectivity/dependence  Rather self sufficient before  Now reliant on  Capital (loans)  Purchased inputs  Petroleum  markets NotT clear that even though total output increased - wellbeing did for everyone

19. © M. Meade

21. © T. M. Whitmore South Asia & GR Per hectare productivity up  Yet still below world’s best Poor performance due to  Uncertain Monsoon and lack too little irrigation Tenure uneven  Many very small holders =>  Poverty  Cannot afford inputs But, since late 1960s S Asia has been able to feed itself – but for how long?

22. © T. M. Whitmore Globally Problems & Successes – critics and apologists Successes  Improved productivity 3-6 times as much per hectare  Far lower prices for main grain crops world wide  Lower rates of extensification world wide  Vastly increased food production  Lower proportions of hunger and lower absolute numbers  Regionally variable

23. 0 1 2 3 4 5 Yield (metric tons/hectare) 196019651970197519801985199019952000 Wheat Yield Rice Yield Maize Yield Yields Are Up, But Growth is Slowing World Resources Institute

25. © T. M. Whitmore Problems with the technology itself Chemical pollution  runoff can enter water tables and poison local water sources  individual farmers often have very little knowledge of risks using pesticides especially — thus compromising their health

26. © T. M. Whitmore Soil damage  chemicals, especial herbicides and other organic killers, can also kill micro organisms within the soils  very “tight” spacing of crops in the field lead to large demands on the soils for nutrients  tight spacing and mechanization can lead to soil compaction  Erosion & salinization Problems with the technology itself

27. © T. M. Whitmore Other Problems Uneven geographic and crop-specific impacts  Little improvement in pulses and roots  Little improvement in crops that are mostly un-irrigated (barley, millets, and sorghums) Regionally uneven Most recent increase due to increase in fertilizer not seeds per se

28. © T. M. Whitmore Problems continued Impacts on large and small holders  Difficult for poor to afford the “package”  Benefits of improved output mostly to the already relatively better off Other criticisms  Genetic loss  Petroleum dependence (fertilizer)  Dependence on irrigation  Does not “solve” the food problem

29. © T. M. Whitmore Agriculture III Cattle — Sacred in Hindu India:  > 200 million head  Traction/power  Dung  Milk

30. © John Wiley & Sons

31. N India –”Persian” wheel irrigation © 2005 The Great Mirror

32. © Pearson Education – Prentice Hall

34. N India – dung curing for fuel © 2005 The Great Mirror

36. © Michel Guntern