1. Memory Part 2

2. What is memory? Memory is the storage of learned information for retrieval and future use.

3. REVIEW: The Key Questions When psychologists study memory they focus on 3 key questions: 1. How does information get INTO memory? 2. How is information MAINTAINED in memory? 3. How do we get information BACK OUT of memory?

4. 3 ?s correspond to the 3 key memory processes: ENCODING = into STORAGE= maintained RETRIEVAL= back out

5. Review- ENCODING a process of forming a memory code in order to get information into your memory- you focus awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or events Ex. May emphasize shape of a dog’s nose to identify the breed- German Shepard’s have a long nose, more pointed than a bull dog- make the code for German Shepard according to the nose characteristics

6. STORAGE Maintaining encoded information in memory over a period of time Memory stores

7. RETRIEVAL Recovering information from memory stores

8. Memory : How does it work? 1. you encounter a stimuli (an event) which goes into sensory storage 2. the information is preserved for a few seconds at most 3.the information will be lost unless we pay attention to it 4. once successfully recognized, you are able to bring info to your STM

9. Short Term Memory A limited capacity store that can maintain information for approximately 20 seconds If you rehearse the information, by repeating it or verbalizing it, the memory may last a bit longer Ex. Call the operator for a phone number- no pen- you say the number over and over while dialing- won’t likely go into long term memory store but will stay in STM for a while

10. ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL The only way to bring STM into LTM Connecting new information with previously stored, already existing associative structures Ex. When a teacher used to make you use a new vocabulary word in context by making up a sentence and writing it

11. Long Term Memory An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time Subcategories of LTM:  Declarative memory: factual information like dates and names  Episodic memory: information about events, people, places  Semantic memory: mental models of the environment as well as procedures (rules, language, strategies for problem solving)  Non-declarative memory: implicit memory (motor skills)

12. RECONSTRUCTION of memory- How accurate are our memories? The piecing together from a few highlights Information may or may not be accurate Critical details can be forgotten, misremembered, or complete new details incorporated into a memory Bartlett (1886-1969) people systematically distort facts and circumstances of experiences

13. SCHEMAS- an individual’s storage box The frameworks of knowledge and assumptions about people, objects, and events Our schemas often contain association cues for retrieval of memories When we confront new information, we often distort some aspect of the information or forget other aspects

14. DISTORTION IN MEMORY- is it deliberate? Are we lying? Occurs when people alter the memory of an event or an experience to fit their beliefs, expectations, logic, or prejudice We usually distort memories of our lives in a positive direction Ex. Liberation of concentration camps- German people denial You probably remember the A’s you earned more than your D’s

15. SYSTEMATIC DISTORTION: Eye Witness Testimony Why is eye witness testimony often unreliable?  Highly subject to error- many wrongful convictions  Plays vital role in the US justice system  Police are notorious for asking leading questions and evoking a desired response from a witness  TV, newspapers, media contamination- more you learn about a case, more likely you are to incorporate info into your own memory of the event

16. RECOVERING REPRESSED MEMORIES Called motivated forgetting- a purposeful blocking or “suppressing” of information Freud referred to this as repression- keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious Are memories actually repressed or are they false memories?

17. False memories Holes or gaps in your memory filled in by experiences and social influences Ex. False memories in child abuse The research is not conclusive- repressed memories have gotten a lot of attention recently, but they may not be as common as people believe- power of suggestion Ex. Car accident

18. Infantile amnesia inability of older children and adults to recall events from their first few years of life In conclusion- current research supports both the possibility that repressed memories exist and that false memories can be constructed in response to suggestions of abuse

19. Unusual Memory Phenomenon FLASHBULB MEMORIES: extremely vivid memories formed when a person learns of an event that is very surprising, shocking, or highly emotional

20. EIDETIC IMAGERY 5% children have a photographic memory- most lose this ability before adulthood

21. MEMORY and CULTURE People more easily remember stories set in their own culture The manner and matter (the how and what) of recall are often predominantly determined by social influences Ex. Adolescent culture and music lyrics

22. What influences your memory? Why is some information easier to recall than others? Serial information effect: for information learned in a sequence, recall is better for items at the beginning and the end rather than for items in the middle of the sequence Information at the beginning of a sequence that you recall better than the middle terms: primary effect Ex. I went to the Bronx Zoo and brought…A an apple, B a baseball, C…

23. continued Recency effect: the tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle Poorer recall of middle info- it is no longer in your short- term memory and has not yet been placed in long-term memory; the “end” information is still in your short-term memory

24. Environmental Context and Memory Research states that many elements of the physical setting in which you learn information are encoded with the information and become part of your memory If you can’t recall answers to a test question- visualize yourself in the room where you studied Odors can also be a powerful retrieval cue for memory Taste- gum chewing when studying and taking a test

25. Can your emotions and other states of consciousness affect memory? State-dependent memory effect: information is recalled better if you are in the same state (psychological or pharmacological) as when the information was encoded Studies: people learned things in both a sober and intoxicated state and recalled things better when asked to do so in the same state for both learning and testing

26. Emotions and memory, continued Anxiety and fear influence memory- people going through significant life stresses do more poorly of tests of recent memories Subjects who were clinically depressed recall more negative life experiences from their pasts- as the depression lifted, the tendency toward negative recall reverses itself