1. Metaphysics of Mind & Idealism
Descartes is NOT an idealist, but instead an important thinker in the discourse of Idealism
Substances will often be the basis of many of their discussions. How many basic substances exist?
These thinkers attempt to explain the special substance (the Mind). How does it either reflect reality, create reality or obscure reality?
These thinkers are NOT necessarily idealists, though you will see some commonalities
Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz

2. Rene Descartes (1596-1650ce): The Dualist (plus one)
Technically was a Pluralist because he believed in 3 basic substances: Mind, Body, God
The problem was discovering how the Mind-Body interact. Do they infiltrate each other? Does the Mind’s substance take up space?
How does God interact with these substances?
Two perceived solutions: (1) mind and body were not separate substances but instead part of the same substance (2) they were separate substances but they did not interact.

3. Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677ce): “There can be only ONE!”
See pages for his proofs and definitions (good luck)
Spinoza was a Monist because he believed reality had only one substance: mind and body were different attributes of that one substance
Monism solved the issue of mind/body interacting as well as how God could interact with the world  led to theory of Pantheism (we discussed in the God unit).
We are all ONE attribute of the interconnected fabric of existence.

4. Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716): Monads
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz ( ): Monads! And they Don’t Interact!
Agreed with Descartes that there was a Plurality of substances (Pluralist). However, he also agreed with Spinoza that substances could not interact.
The most basic substance for Leibniz were Monads (minds). These create the appearances of a physical reality, but it is like a hologram.
In a sense, we’re all living with the pre-established physical reality produced by God. We do not truly see or interact with anyone; our Mind is simply told that we do (by the supermonad)

5. Metaphysics: Idealism
“Idealism is not taken ligthly or to sound far-fetched. They are based on careful consideration and a large number of sound & hard-hitting arguments.”
Idealism is often attributed to Plato due to his theory of the World of Being
Idealism is the belief that what is most real is the mind; all else are ideas in the mind. All else depends on the mind in some sense for existence.

6. George Berkeley (1685-1753) THE Subjective Idealist
Held the radical view that nothing exists outside of experience (perception/ideas). A stone exists because we have an idea of a stone (we can experience it)
We know our mind exists because ideas presuppose minds. We know God exists because our finite minds require His infinite mind

7. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) : THE German Idealist
Kant believed in two rational worlds: The World of Nature (objects, cause and effect, science) & The World of Action/Belief (morality, God, duty, Freedom of choice)
Both were equally rational. WE set up the world with our ideas and our categories. There is no TIME or SPACE or OBJECT apart from our experience of them.
However, our minds are set up with a universal principles that ensure that space must be a certain way for us.
This speaks to the formatting of our mind; The world MUST be a certain way, but that is due to our minds and not some objective reality about the material world.

8. Kant’s Two-World View: Knowledge and Action & Belief
For Kant, we operate in two worlds (sometimes simultaneously; sometimes separately):
When involved with the World of Knowledge, we perceive the world through our concepts of understanding constituted by specific rules
When involved with the World of Practical Matters, a different set of rules apply
See pg 134, 2nd paragraph for examples

9. Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860): The Pessimist's Idealist
Most know Schopenhauer as a misanthrope. He heaped scorn on his enemies and would commonly annoy his contemporaries with his wit and arrogance.
His philosophy takes the standpoint of a pessimist
(life is not good and has no purpose)
He accepted Kant’s Idealism; however, he disagreed that the two worlds were rational. The Solution is to seek aesthetic detachment and escape the Will or engage in ascetic renunciation. What does this mean?
For Schopenhauer, both worlds were irrational
Knowledge = Illusion & Action/belief are driven by Will
Will = Irrational; Will doesn’t belong to us but overtakes us

10. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1832): #GotSpirit?
Hegel also took up Kantian Idealism. However, instead of two static worlds, Hegel saw a single overarching cosmos
Reality was an all-embracing Spirit in constant development; the world has a Cosmic Consciousness (see Gaia Theory)
All of our attempts to know the Cosmos are merely ways in which the Universal Spirit examines itself. Carl Sagan references this often
See pg 136 for the argument

11. Questions of Teleology: Does the Universe have a Purpose?
Teleology: From the Greek telos ‘purpose’
Many people think of the universe as a Giant Machine that operates based on the laws of nature.
However, many philosophers who support the mechanistic view of the universe still argue that God gave the universe a purpose.
Others argue that the universe is simply ‘Matter in Motion’ and there is no higher purpose

12. Homework Assignment
Answer all 3 closing question to the best of your ability.
Answer ALL parts of Questions 3