1. Fragmentation and Management of Landscape

2. How many red spots make a white cow red? How many red spots make a white cow red? How many clearing make a forest, prairie? How many clearing make a forest, prairie? A threshold reached? A threshold reached? (Forman and Godron 1986)

3. Where was it from? Where was it from? Origins & Definitions Origins & Definitions Where we are? Where we are? Problems – Case Studies Problems – Case Studies Importance of fragmentation. Importance of fragmentation. Where to go? Where to go? Achievements & Necessities Achievements & Necessities

4. Island Biogeographic Theory Early interest in habitat fragmentation arose from island biogeographic theory (MacArthur and Wilson, 1963 & 1967). Early interest in habitat fragmentation arose from island biogeographic theory (MacArthur and Wilson, 1963 & 1967). (MacArthur and Wilson, 1963)

5. 19.4 – fish 1982 (Preston, 1962; Nilsson et al. 1988)

6. 19.3 – mammal 1989

7. The equilibrium model of island biogeography by MacArthur and Wilson (1963)

8. Definitions Broad Definition Broad Definition: transformation of original continuous forest landscape into small and isolated remnant patches of plantation or non- forest habitat. It is simply the disruption of continuity. Narrow Definition Narrow Definition: Breaking up of a habitat or land type into smaller parcels

9. Examples – Fragmentation

10. NE China Miombo Africa Bayfield (WI) Maraba Africa Fragmentation: Habitat Loss

11. (1986) (1993)(1999) Rondonia, Brazil Fragmentation: Subdivision of habitat From Dar Roberts, CA

12. Fragmentation: Patch Isolation Observed reproductive rates were low enough for some species in the most fragmented landscapes to suggest that their populations are sinks…. Conservation strategies should consider preservation and restoration of large, un-fragmented “core” areas in each region.

13. Fragmentation: Edge Effects 1972 2001

14. The forested areas of Warwickshire, England (shown in black) (Wilcove et al. 1986)

16. 1km 50 m 81 ha 69 ha 59 ha 30 m

18. The Checkerboard Landscape Patterns of clearcutting development under various models(a-c) Progression of clearcutting using the dispersed patch model in which areas are selected for cutting so as to be distributed regularly across the landscape: shown are 25, 50, and 75% cutover points. (e- f) Pattern of cutting at 50% point using single, four nucleus, and aggressive-parallel cutting systems. (Franklin & Forman 1987)

19. Susceptibility of forests in the Douglas- fir region to various damaging agent along a landscape cutting gradient as shown by the checkerborad model. (Franklin & Froman 1987)

20. Landscape structure  Patch density  Patch size  Inter-patch distance  Connectivity  Boundary length  Interior/edge ratio  Maximum of core (interior forest)  Total interior  Stepping stones  Corridors Species  Isolation  Number of generalist  Exotic species  Nest predation  Extinction rate  Dispersal of interior species  Large-home-range species  Richness of interior species Others  Metapopulation dynamics  Genetic inbreeding  Size of disturbance patches  Cumulative effects (rain, snow and flooding effects) EFFECTS OF FRAGMENTATION

21. Creating Land Mosaics

22. An old-growth patch surrounded by a long rotation island that is cut in a programmed sequence such. ( Harris 1984)

24. Conclusions  The number, size, and arrangement of the patches in a mosaic created by forest managers strongly influence the degree to which management objectives are fulfilled.  Two recommendations are: (1) reduce the emphasis on dispersing small clearcut patches through the forest landscape, and (2) identify and reserve large patches of primeval forest in the landscape for maintenances of interior and amenity values.  SLOSS debate

25. What do we want to know about fragmentation? What are the relationships among patch area, patch shape, patch isolation, edge, the interaction of these factors, and various population and ecosystem? What are the relationships among patch area, patch shape, patch isolation, edge, the interaction of these factors, and various population and ecosystem? How do various landscape elements, such as corridors, linear networks, and matrix, affect various ecosystem processes and the connectivity of populations in fragmented landscapes? How do various landscape elements, such as corridors, linear networks, and matrix, affect various ecosystem processes and the connectivity of populations in fragmented landscapes? How do pattern-process linkages function in spatially and temporally dynamic landscapes across the range of spatial and temporal scales? How do pattern-process linkages function in spatially and temporally dynamic landscapes across the range of spatial and temporal scales? What levels of habitat loss and fragmentation does population viability decline drastically? What levels of habitat loss and fragmentation does population viability decline drastically? How long does it take population and ecosystem processes to respond to physical changes in the landscape associated with fragmentation? How long does it take population and ecosystem processes to respond to physical changes in the landscape associated with fragmentation?

26. Manipulative and Mensurative Experiment - Two Major Approaches Manipulative experiment Manipulative experiment Physically manipulates some attribute of the system in a controlled manner, while holding all other attributes constant. Physically manipulates some attribute of the system in a controlled manner, while holding all other attributes constant. Mensurative experiment Mensurative experiment Simply observes or measures the system at different locations or times Simply observes or measures the system at different locations or times The treatment is the different conditions in space or time. The treatment is the different conditions in space or time.

27. Generally, manipulative experiments lead to stronger inferences and therefore more reliable knowledge than mensurative experiments. Generally, manipulative experiments lead to stronger inferences and therefore more reliable knowledge than mensurative experiments. A Ideal Manipulative experiment requires A Ideal Manipulative experiment requires The similarity among landscape minimizes the experimental error The similarity among landscape minimizes the experimental error The size of the landscape are functionally relevant to the process/organism(s) under consideration The size of the landscape are functionally relevant to the process/organism(s) under consideration Areal extent and configuration manipulation is needed to assess independent and interactive of processes Areal extent and configuration manipulation is needed to assess independent and interactive of processes Replication and Random Replication and Random Temporal and Spatial Controls (Natural Variability) Temporal and Spatial Controls (Natural Variability) Observing the delayed effect Observing the delayed effect

28. Mensurative Experiment Can overcome some of the important limitations Can overcome some of the important limitations The practical and logistical difficulties of implementing large-scale treatment The practical and logistical difficulties of implementing large-scale treatment No practical limit to the spatial or temporal scale of the study system No practical limit to the spatial or temporal scale of the study system Flexibility in time lag effect Flexibility in time lag effect Still problems … Still problems … Additional sources of variation associated with inconsistent and uncontrolled past perturbations Additional sources of variation associated with inconsistent and uncontrolled past perturbations Lack in pretreatment control – owing to substituting space for time – inherent variability and autocorrelation Lack in pretreatment control – owing to substituting space for time – inherent variability and autocorrelation

29. Landscape level study Landscape level study Isolation of a process Isolation of a process Extinction threshold/ Time lag/ synergisms between habitat area and configuration Extinction threshold/ Time lag/ synergisms between habitat area and configuration Inequity in the organismal focus Inequity in the organismal focus Invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians Invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians Replication / Poorly controlled Replication / Poorly controlled Spatial information Spatial information Lack in …