1. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 1 Chapter 6 Learning This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-205-42428-7

2. 2 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Learning Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes Behavioral learning – Forms of learning that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses

3. 3 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Learning Three types of Learning Classical Conditioning Operant or Instrumental Learning Cognitive or Social Learning

4. 4 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which a stimulus that produces an innate reflex becomes associated with a previously neutral stimulus, which then acquires the power to elicit essentially the same response What Sort of Learning Does Classical Conditioning Explain?

5. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 5 Demonstration

6. 6 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Neutral stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning Acquisition – Initial learning stage in classical conditioning; conditioned response becomes elicited by the conditioned stimulus

7. 7 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS)

8. 8 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response

9. 9 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning

10. 10 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response

11. 11 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 The Essentials of Classical Conditioning Unconditioned response (UCR) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Conditioned response (CR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) A response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus

12. 12 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning Prior to conditioning Conditioning After conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) (Orientation to sound but no response) Unconditioned stimulus (food powder in mouth) Unconditioned response (salivation) Neutral stimulus CS (tone) Unconditioned stimulus (food powder) + Conditioned response (salivation) Conditioned stimulus (tone) Conditioned response (salivation)

13. 13 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer Spontaneous recovery – Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay

14. 14 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery (1) Acquisition (CS + UCS) (3) Spontaneous Recovery (CS alone) Rest period (2) Extinction (CS alone) (Time) Trials Strength of the CR (Weak) (Strong)

15. 15 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus generalization involves giving a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the CS Stimulus discrimination involves responding to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar Confusing stimuli may cause experimental neurosis

16. 16 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Applications of Classical Conditioning Taste-aversion learning – Biological tendency in which an organism learns to avoid food with a certain taste after a single experience, if eating it is followed by illness

17. 17 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 One Final Thought on Pavlov Why are some stimuli-consequence combinations readily learned while other combinations are highly resistant to learning? What any organism can or cannot learn in a given setting is due in part to its evolutionary history

18. 18 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur again

19. 19 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences

20. 20 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences

21. 21 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Reinforcement vs Punishment Reinforcement Anything that increases a behavior or response Punishment Anything that decreases or stops a behavior/response

22. 22 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Types of Consequences Positive (Add) Negative (Remove) Reinforcement Apply reward to increase behavior (e.g., Getting A’s for studying hard) Remove aversive stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., Advil relieves headache) Punishment Apply negative consequence to decrease behavior (e.g., Spanking) Remove desirable stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., Time Out)

23. 23 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Four Kinds of Consequences Positive (Add) Negative (Subtract) STIMULUS Decrease Behavior Positive Punishment Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding Positive Punishment Missing dinner leads to less staying out late Increase Behavior Positive Reinforcement Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work Negative Reinforcement Aspirin relieving headache leads to more aspirin use GOAL

24. 24 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Class Demonstration Establishing a behavior using operant conditioning Select a target behavior; be very specific Using shaping  reinforcing successive approximations of the behavior Be careful to reinforce only the target behavior

25. 25 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Types of Reinforcers Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism

26. 26 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Types of Reinforcers Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers)

27. 27 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement)

28. 28 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI)

29. 29 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed

30. 30 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial e.g. slot machine pay- offs

31. 31 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks

32. 32 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise

33. 33 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 How does this differ from extinction in classical conditioning? Contingencies of Reinforcement Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement

34. 34 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Punishment Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows How does this differ from negative reinforcement?

35. 35 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Loud NoisePress Lever Loud Noise Removed Loud Noise Applied Response Consequence Negative Reinforcement Punishment No Noise

36. 36 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Types of Punishment Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response Negative punishment – The removal of an attractive stimulus after a response

37. 37 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Problems of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed Punishment Often triggers aggression May inhibit learning new and better responses Is often applied unequally When does punishment work?

38. 38 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Alternatives to Punishment Extinction Reinforcing preferred activities Premack principle Prompting and shaping

39. 39 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior

40. 40 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Using Classical and Operant Conditioning to Initiate and Sustain Behavior Change Classical Conditioning  connects command with behavior UCS = tug on leash or pressure on hind legs UCR = dog sits CS = command (i.e., “Rocky sit”) CR = dog sits Operant conditioning  behavior is repeated Give praise or food reward following CR Use intermittent reinforcement to prevent extinction

41. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 41 Cognitive Learning Models

42. 42 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Kohler: Insight Learning Wolfgang Kohler Disenchanted with behaviorists explanation for learning Believed that cognition, or mental processes must be essential to learning Observational studies of chimpanzees

43. 43 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Insight Learning Problem – bananas hung outside of chimp’s reach Initial solutions Pile up boxes and climb on top Use sticks to knock the fruit down

44. 44 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Insight Learning Insight learning solve complex problems by combining simpler, previously learned responses Problem-solving occurs through sudden reorganization of perceptions Placed bananas higher up – neither previously learned solutions sufficient to get the fruit

45. 45 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Insight Learning When unable to reach the fruit First – threw the sticks away and kicked the wall Later, piled up the boxes, grabbed the stick, climbed on the boxes and knocked the fruit down with the stick Cannot be explained through either operant or classical conditioning alone

46. 46 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Kohler’s Chimps

47. 47 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Tolman: Cognitive Maps Cognitive maps Mental representations or images that help organisms navigate through the world Reinforcement has a greater impact on performance than on learning i.e., reinforcement serves to motivate the animal to demonstrate what it has learned

48. 48 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Diagram of a Tolman Maze

49. 49 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Cognitive Maps Three groups of rats 1) No reinforcement 2) Reinforced on every trial 3) No reinforcement for first ten trials; reinforced on all subsequent trials

50. 50 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Error Curve by Day and Food Deprivation

51. 51 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Maze Learning Start Food/ Goal Box AB

52. 52 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Cognitive Maps Tolman hypothesized that the rats developed cognitive maps of the maze i.e., Visual/spatial Image or representation of physical space that is used to navigate through the environment Demonstrated latent learning – learning that takes place in the absence of reinforcement reinforcement necessary to demonstrate acquisition

53. 53 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Bandura: Social Learning Theory Observational Learning Acquisition of behaviors that results from observation rather than direct experience E.g., Children learn do cartwheels and handstands Learn what clothes to wear to fit in (e.g., midriffs; low-riser jeans) Learn aggressive behavior

54. 54 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Learning Theory Modeling – imitation and reproduction of behaviors of models Model must be salient (i.e., are attractive, have high status, and are similar to observer) Parents, peers, siblings, celebrities

55. 55 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Learning Theory Vicarious reinforcement Learn about the consequences of a behavior by observing a model engage in the behavior and experience consequences Outcome Expectancies Learned association between a specific behavior and a specific consequence OR Belief about the consequences of our behavior

56. 56 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Learning Theory Outcome expectancies Alcohol makes me relaxed and sociable Wearing brown polyester will make me a social outcast If I study for the exam, I will get a good grade If I eat those cookies, I will feel good Having sex without a condom will result in enhanced pleasure

57. 57 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Learning Theory Positive outcome expectancies Belief that the behavior will result in reinforcing or rewarding outcomes Negative outcome expectancies Belief that the behavior will result in punishing or negative outcomes

58. 58 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Social Learning Theory Expectancies influence subsequent behavior Positive expectancy (i.e., belief that behavior results in reinforcing outcomes)  engage in or repeat behavior Negative expectancy (i.e., belief that behavior results in punishing outcomes)  avoid or discontinue behavior

59. 59 Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2006 Aggressive Behavior Children observed a model behave aggressively toward the BOBO doll Were more likely to behave aggressively when given the opportunity to play with the BOBO doll Especially when the model was reinforced for his/her aggressive behavior