1. Chapter 3: Individual Markets: Demand & Supply
Market: An institution or mechanism that brings together buyers (“demanders”) and sellers (“suppliers”) of particular goods, services, or resources.
All situations that link potential buyers with potential sellers are markets.
Purely competitive markets with a large number of independent buyers and sellers.

2. Demand
Demand is a schedule or a curve that shows the various amounts of a product that consumers are willing and able to purchase at each of a series of possible prices during a specific period of time
Demand shows the quantities of a product that will be purchased at various possible prices, other things equal
A demand schedule shows price and quantity demanded for a particular good.
The demand schedule alone does not indicate the price of the good in the market because that price will depend on demand AND supply.

3. Law of Demand
All else equal, as price falls, the quantity demanded rises, and as price rises, the quantity demanded falls.
There is a negative (inverse) relationship between price and quantity demanded.

4. Inverse Relationship between Price and Quantity Demanded
People buy more of a product at a low price than at a high price. Think: Sales.
Consumption is subject to diminishing marginal utility (MU).
As successive units of a particular product yield less MU, consumers will buy additional units ONLY if the price of those units is progressively reduced.

5. Income & Substitution Effects
The income effect indicates that a lower price increases the purchasing power of a buyer’s money income, enabling the buyer to purchase more of the product that she or he could buy before.
The substitution effect suggests that at a lower price buyers have the incentive to substitute what is now a less expensive product for similar products that are now relatively more expensive.
The income & substitution effects combine to make consumers able & willing to buy more of a product at a low price than at a high price.

6. The Demand Curve (Fig 3.1) Quantity demanded on the horizontal axis
Price on the vertical axis.
Downward (-) slope reflects the law of demand.
Consumers buy more of a product, service, or resource as its price falls.

7. Market Demand
Competition requires that more than one buyer be present in each market.
Add the quantities demanded by ALL consumers at each possible price to get from individual demand to market demand.
To simplify, we assume that all buyers in a market are willing & able to buy the same amounts at each of the possible prices.
Multiply quantity demanded of a single buyer by the number of buyers to obtain market demand.

8. Determinants of Demand
Consumers’ tastes/preferences
Number of consumers in the market
Consumers’ incomes
Price of related goods
Consumer expectations about future prices and incomes

9. Change in Demand
A change in one or more of the determinants of demand will change the demand curve
Increase in demand is shown as a shift of the demand curve to the right
Decrease in demand is shown as a shift of the demand curve to the left

10. Income A rise in income causes an increase in demand
Products whose demand varies directly with income are called superior goods, or normal goods.
Goods whose demand varies inversely with money income are called inferior goods.

11. Prices of Related Goods
A change in the price of a related good may either increase or decrease the demand for a product.
A substitute good can be used in place of another. The price of one and the demand for the other move in the same direction.
A complimentary good is used together with another good and are usually demanded together. The price of one good and the demand for the other good move in opposite directions.

12. What causes an increase in demand?
Favorable change in consumer tastes
Increase in number of buyers
Rising incomes causes demand for normal goods to rise
Falling incomes causes demand for inferior goods to rise
Increase in price of a substitute good
Decrease in the price of a complementary good
New consumer expectations that either prices or income will be higher in the future.

13. Changes in Quantity Demanded
Change in demand is a shift of the ENTIRE demand curve
Change in quantity demanded is a movement from one point to another point, from one price-quantity combination to another, on a demand curve  caused by an increase or decrease in the price of the product.

14. Supply
A schedule or curve showing the amounts of a product that producers are willing and able to make available for sale at each of a series of possible prices during a specific period

15. Law of Supply As price rises the quantity supplied rises
As price falls, the quantity supplied falls
Firms will produce and offer more of their product at a high price than at a low price.
To a supplier, price represent REVENUE, which serves as an incentive to produce and sell a product
The higher the price, the greater the incentive, the greater the quantity supplied

16. The Supply Curve Quantity supplied on the horizontal axis
Price on the vertical axis.
Upward (+) slope reflects the law of supply
Producers sell more of a product, service, or resource as its price rises.

17. Determinants of Supply
Resource prices
Technology
Taxes & Subsidies
Prices of other goods
Price expectations
Number of sellers in the market

18. Taxes & Subsidies Taxes are a cost
Taxes increase production costs, reducing supply
Subsidies lowers production costs, increasing supply

19. Price Expectations
Changes in expectations about future price of a product may affect the producer’s current willingness to supply that product

20. Changes in Quantity Supplied
A change in supply means a change in the entire schedule and a shift of the entire curve
A change in quantity supplied is a movement from one point to another on a fixed supply curve, caused by a change in the price of the product.

21. Market Equilibrium
Assumes a competitive market, neither buyers nor sellers can set the price
Excess supply causes surpluses
Excess demand causes shortages
When there are no shortages or surpluses, the price is at equilibrium  at the intersection of the supply and demand curves
Equilibrium = “market-clearing” price
Equilibrium quantity: quantity supplied & demanded are equal

22. Individual Markets Demand & supply are schedules
Intuitive understanding of the downward slope of demand and upward slope of supply curves
Determinants of demand & supply
Distinction between shift or change in demand and change in quantity demanded
Distinction between shift or change in supply and change in quantity supplied
Figure 3.6: Changes in Demand & Supply and the Effects on Price and Quantity (p. 51)

23. Price Ceilings and Price Floors
A price ceiling sets the maximum legal price a seller may charge for a product  Shortage
A price floor is a minimum price fixed by the government  Surplus
Distort resource allocation and cause negative side effects

24. Chapter 3 Study Questions
1: Law of Demand
2: Changes in Demand
4: Law of Supply
5: Changes in Supply
7a-c: Market Equilibrium
8: Changes in Demand &/or Supply
9: Changes in Supply