1. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 1 of 49 Many cofactors are derived from vitamins We justify lumping these two topics together because many cofactors are vitamins or are metabolites of vitamins.

2. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 2 of 49 What we’ll discuss Tightly-bound metal ions as cofactors Activator ions as cofactors Cosubstrates Prosthetic groups Vitamins Water-soluble vitamins Ascorbate Cofactors Fat-soluble vitamins

3. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 3 of 49 Family tree of cofactors Cofactors, coenzymes, essential ions, cosubstrates, prosthetic groups: Cofactors (apoenzyme + cofactor  holoenzyme) Essential ions Coenzymes Activator ions (loosely bound) Ions in metalloenzymes Prosthetic groups (tightly bound) Cosubstrates (loosely bound)

4. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 4 of 49 Metal-activated enzymes Absolute requirements for mobile ions Often require K +, Ca 2+, Mg 2+ Example: Kinases: Mg-ATP complex Metalloenzymes: firmly bound metal ions in active site Usually divalent or more Sometimes 1e - redox changes in metal

5. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 5 of 49 Coenzymes Organic moeities that enable enzymes to perform their function: they supply functionalities not available from amino acid side chains Cosubstrates Enter reaction, get altered, leave Repeated recycling within cell or organelle Prosthetic groups Remain bound to enzyme throughout Change during one phase of reaction, eventually get restored to starting state

6. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 6 of 49 Major cosubstrates Facilitate group transfers, mostly small groups Oxidation-reduction participants CosubstrateSourceFunction ATPTransfer P,Nucleotide S-adenosylMetMethyl transfer UDP-glucoseGlycosyl transfer NAD,NADPNiacin2-electron redox Coenzyme APantothenateAcyl transfer TetrahydrofolateFolate1Carbon transfer UbiquinoneLipid-soluble e - carrier

7. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 7 of 49 Major prosthetic groups Transfer of larger groups One- or two-electron redox changes Prosth.gp.SourceFunction FMN, FADRiboflavin1e - and 2e - redox transfers TPPThiamine2-Carbon transfers with C=O PLPPyridoxineAmino acid group transfers BiotinBiotinCarboxylation, COO - transfer Adenosyl-CobalaminIntramolec. rearrangements cobalamin MeCobal.CobalaminMethyl-group transfers LipoamideTransfer from TPP RetinalVitamin AVision Vitamin KVitamin KCarboxylation of glu residues

8. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 8 of 49 Adenosine triphosphate Synthesizable in liver (chapter 18) Building block for RNA Participates in phosphoryl-group transfer in kinases Source of other coenzymes

9. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 9 of 49 S-adenosylmethionine Made from methionine and adenosine Sulfonium group is highly reactive: can donate methyl groups Reaction diagram courtesy of Eric Neeno-Eckwall, Hamline University

10. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 10 of 49 UDP-glucose Most common donor of glucose Formed via: Glucose-1P + UTP  UDP-glucose + PP i Reaction driven to right by PP i hydrolysis Structure courtesy of UIC Pharmacy Program

11. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 11 of 49 NAD + and NADP + Net charge isn’t really >0 ; the + is just a reminder that the nicotinamide ring is positively charged Most important cosubstrates in oxidation- reduction reactions in aerobic organisms Structure courtesy of Sergio Marchesini, U. Brescia

12. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 12 of 49 Differences between them The chemical difference is in the phosphorylation of the 2’ phosphate group of the ribose moiety The functional difference is that NAD is usually associated with catabolic reactions and NADP is usually associated with anabolic reactions Therefore often NAD + and NADPH are reactants and NADH and NADP + are products

13. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 13 of 49 How do we get back to the starting point? NADH is often oxidized back to NAD + as part of the electron-transport chain Imbalances can be addressed via NAD Kinase (S.Kawai et al (2005), J.Biol.Chem. 280:39200) and NADP phosphatase

14. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 14 of 49 iClicker quiz: single question What would you expect to be the phosphate donor in the NAD kinase reaction? (a) free phosphate (b) pyrophosphate (c) ATP (d) pyridoxal phosphate

15. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 15 of 49 Reduced forms of NAD(P) Reduction occurs on the nicotinamide ring Ring is no longer net- positive Ring is still planar but the two hydrogens on the para carbon are not

16. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 16 of 49 FAD and FMN Flavin group based on riboflavin Alternate participants in redox reactions Prosthetic groups: tightly but noncovalently bound to their enzymes That protects against wasteful reoxidation of reduced forms FADH 2 is weaker reducing agent than NADH These are capable of one-electron oxidations and reductions

17. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 17 of 49 FAD and FMN structures FAD has an AMP attached P to P Structure courtesy Paisley University

18. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 18 of 49 Reaction diagram courtesy of Eric Neeno-Eckwall, Hamline University FMN/FAD redox forms Two-electron version: H + + :H - transferred

19. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 19 of 49 Coenzyme A Reactive portion is free sulfhydryl at one end of the molecule Can form thioester with acetate, etc. Pantoate +  -alanine = pantothenate Structure courtesy of MPB project, George Washington University (ADP-3’P) (Pantoate)  -alanine)  2-mercapto- ethylamine)

20. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 20 of 49 Thiamine Pyrophosphate Based on thiamine, vitamin B1 Carboxylases and oxidative decarboxylases use this coenzyme So do transketolases (move 2 carbons at a time between sugars with keto groups) Thiazolium ring is reactive center: pK a drops from 15 in H 2 O to 6 in enzyme

21. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 21 of 49 TPP reactions Diagram courtesy of Oklahoma State U. Biochemistry program pyrimidine thiazolium

22. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 22 of 49 Pyridoxal phosphate PLP is prosthetic group for many amino-acid-related enzymes, particularly transaminations Carbonyl group of PLP bound as a Schiff base (imine) to  -amino group of lysine at active site First step is always formation of external aldimine; goes through gem-diamine intermediate to internal aldimine

23. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 23 of 49 Biotin Rarity: vitamin is the prosthetic group Used in reactions that transfer carboxyl groups … and in ATP-dependent carboxylations

24. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 24 of 49 Biotin reactivity Covalently bound to active-site lysines to form species called biocytin Pyruvate carboxylase is characteristic reaction: Diagram courtesy University of Virginia Biochemistry

25. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 25 of 49 Tetrahydrofolate Primary donor of one-carbon units (formyl, methylene, methyl) Supplies methyl group for thymidylate Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) is an interesting drug target Methotrexate as cancer chemotherapeutic: cancer needs more thymidylate than healthy cells Trimethoprim as antibacterial: Bacterial DHFR is somewhat different from eucaryotic DHFR because bacteria derive DHF from other sources; humans get it from folate

26. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 26 of 49 THF structure and function Figure courtesy horticulture program, Purdue

27. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 27 of 49 Cobalamin Largest B vitamin Structure related to heme but missing one carbon in ring structure Cobalt bound in core of ring system Involved in enzymatic rearrangements Catabolism of odd-chain fatty acids Methylation of homocysteine Reductive dehalogenation

28. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 28 of 49 Adenosyl- Cobalamin Diagram courtesy of Swiss Food News “Missing” carbon Reactive Co-C bond

29. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 29 of 49 Lipoamide Protein-bound form of lipoic acid Contains five-membered disulfide ring Covalently bound via amide to protein lysine sidechain Involved in swinging arm between active sites in multienzyme complexes Disulfides break periodically Example: pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

30. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 30 of 49 Lipoamide 2e - reduction Cf. Scheme 7.6: thioester starting point Fig. Courtesy Biochem and Biophysics program, Rensselaer

31. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 31 of 49 iClicker revisited Which coenzyme would you expect would be required for the reaction oxaloacetate + glutamate  aspartate +  -ketoglutarate? (a) ascorbate (b) PLP ( c) thiamine pyrophosphate (d) NAD (e) none of the above

32. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 32 of 49 Vitamins: necessary micronutrients that cannot be synthesized internally What’s a vitamin for one organism is not for another Primates and some rodents are the only vertebrates that don’t synthesize ascorbate E.coli can make almost everything given energy and sources of atoms

33. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 33 of 49 Why wouldn’t organisms make everything? Complex metabolites require energy for synthesis Control of their synthesis is also metabolically expensive Cheaper in the long run to derive these nutrients from diet

34. Biochemistry: Vitamins & Cofactors p. 34 of 49 Vitamins: broad classifications Water-soluble vitamins Coenzymes or coenzyme precursors Non-coenzymic metabolites Fat-soluble vitamins Antioxidants Other lipidic vitamins