1. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Biodiversity

2. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings I. Levels of Biodiversity A.Biodiversity – sum total of all organisms in an area B.Split into three specific levels: -Ecosystem diversity -Species diversity -Genetic diversity

3. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Ecosystem diversity C. Ecosystem diversity = the number and variety of ecosystems 1) Also encompasses differing communities and habitats 2) Rapid vegetation change and varying landscapes within an ecosystem promote higher levels of biodiversity

4. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Species diversity D. Species Diversity = the number or variety of species in the world or in a particular region 1)Richness = the number of species -Speciation generates new species and adds to species richness -Extinction reduces species richness 2) Evenness or relative abundance = number of organisms of each species in an area.

5. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings E. Genetic diversity 1) Encompasses the differences in DNA among individuals within species and populations. The raw material for adaptation to local conditions. 2) Populations with higher genetic diversity can cope with environmental change better 3) Populations with low genetic diversity are vulnerable -To environmental change -Disease -Inbreeding depression = genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior offspring

6. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Fun fact: Cheetahs have famously low genetic diversity. They went through a population bottleneck at the end of the last ice age and just barely escaped extinction. Inbreeding depression is a huge problem for captive cheetahs.

7. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings II. Measuring and Assessing Biodiversity A. Scientists estimate approximately 8.7 million eukaryotic species on the planet (Nature, 2011) - only 1.2 million species have been successfully catalogued B. Very difficult to identify species 1) Many remote spots on Earth remain unexplored 2) Small organisms are easily overlooked 3) Many species look identical until thoroughly examined (or genetically examined) Fun fact: Entomologist Terry Erwin found 163 beetle species specialized on one tree species

8. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings II. Measuring and Assessing Biodiversity C. Some groups contain more species than others 1) Species are not evenly distributed among taxonomic groups -Insects predominate over all other life-forms -40% of all insects are beetles 2) Groups accumulate species by -Adaptive radiation -Allopatric speciation (geographic speciation) -Low rates of extinction

9. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings D. Biodiversity is unevenly distributed 1) Latitudinal gradient = species richness increases towards the equator Canada has 30 - 100 species of breeding birds, while Costa Rica has more than 600 species

10. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings E. Latitudinal gradient has many causes 1) Climate stability, high plant productivity, and no glaciation 2) Tropical biomes support more species and show more species evenness -Diverse habitats increase species diversity

11. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings III. Biodiversity losses and species extinction A. Extinction = occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist B. Extirpation = the disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globally -Can lead to extinction

12. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings C. Extinction is a natural process 1) Paleontologists estimate 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct 2) Background rate of extinction = natural extinctions for a variety of reasons -1 extinction per 1 to 10 million species for mammals and marine species -1 species out of 1,000 mammal and marine species would go extinct every 1,000 to 10,000 years

13. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings D. Earth has experienced five mass extinctions 1) In the past 440 million years, five mass extinctions have eliminated at least 50% of all species present at the time of the extinction event.

14. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings E. The 6 th mass extinction – Happening NOW, is human caused 1) During this Quaternary period, we may lose more than half of all species -Hundreds of human-induced species extinctions, and multitudes of others, teeter on the brink of extinction 2) The current global extinction rate is 100 to 1,000 times greater than the background rate

15. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings F. Current extinction rates are higher than normal 1) The Red List = an updated list of species facing high risks of extinctions (published since the 1960’s by the world’s leading conservation groups). In 2014, the list included 20,930 species, an increase of 35% in just the last ten years (15,503 species in 2004)

16. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings G. Biodiversity loss is more than extinction 1) Decreasing numbers are accompanied by smaller species’ geographic ranges 2) Genetic, ecosystem, and species diversity are being lost.

17. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings I am endangered….

18. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings IV. Characteristics of a SPECIES that make it vulnerable to extinction A. Species heading toward extinction are classified as either endangered or threatened. B. An Endangered species has so few individual survivors that the species could soon become extinct over all or most of its natural range. C. A threatened species is still abundant in its natural range but, because of declining numbers, is likely to become endangered in the near future.

19. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings IV. Characteristics of a SPECIES that make it vulnerable to extinction D. Low reproductive rate (K strategist – 1 or two offspring, long gestation/rearing period) Examples: Blue whale, rhino E. Specialized niche – blue whale, giant panda F. Narrow distribution – elephant seal, desert pupfish G. Feeds at high trophic level – Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear. (Side note: Birds that feed at high levels had DDT/egg issues) H. Fixed migratory patterns – Whooping crane, sea turtles I.Rare – African violet, some orchids

20. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

21. IV. Characteristics of a SPECIES that make it vulnerable to extinction J. Commercially valuable parts – Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds K. Large territories – California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther L. Some organisms also have behavioral patterns that can put them at risk ex: 1) The Carolina parakeet nested in large flocks that made them easy to kill, Florida Key deer are “nicotine addicts” that get killed because they forage for cigarette butts along highways.

22. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings V. Biodiversity loss, driven by HUMANS, has many causes A.An acronym used by conservation biologists to describe human causes of biodiversity loss is HIPPCO H: Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation I: Invasive (nonnative) species P: Population and resource use growth (too many people consuming too many resources) P: Pollution C: Climate Change O: Overexploitation

23. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings V. Biodiversity loss has many causes B. Habitat loss - The greatest cause of biodiversity loss -Farming reduces populations -Clearing forests removes resources organisms need -Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural communities -A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from changing habitats

24. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings C. Invasive species cause biodiversity loss 1) Introduction of non-native species to new environments 2) Island species are especially vulnerable 3) Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or parasites 4) Cost billions of dollars in economic damage

25. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings D. Pollution causes biodiversity loss 1) Harms organisms in many ways -Air pollution degrades ecosystems -Water pollution adversely affects fish and amphibians 2) The damage to wildlife and ecosystems caused by pollution can be severe -But it tends to be less than the damage caused by habitat alteration or invasive species

26. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings E. Climate change causes biodiversity loss 1) Emissions of greenhouse gases warms temperatures -Modifies global weather patterns and increases the frequency of extreme weather events -Increases stress on populations and forces organisms to shift their geographic ranges 2) Alpine and Arctic species are already feeling the impact of climate change.

27. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Warming has been the greatest in the Arctic The polar bear is being considered for the endangered species list

28. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings F. Overharvesting causes biodiversity loss 1) If a species is economically valuable, they are often overharvested, or poached. Animals can be used for food, clothing, or medicine. Examples of animals being overharvested currently: 1.Sharks for their fins - Soup 2.Elephants for their tusks – Decoration 3.Rhinos for their horns – Currently greatest use in Vietnam for drinking as a status symbol, and in tandem with chemotherapy. Rhinos for their horns – Currently greatest use in Vietnam for drinking as a status symbol, and in tandem with chemotherapy. Rhino horn costs more per ounce than any drug on the planet – so powerful economic incentive for poaching.

29. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings VI. Biodiversity helps maintain ecosystem function and services A. Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of communities and ecosystems -Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural system’s ability to function and provide services to our society B. The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently -Extinction of a keystone species may cause other species to decline or disappear C. Biodiversity in ecosystems is what allows ecosystems to function fully, thus providing the ecosystem services discussed in unit 3 – food, water purification, medicines, nutrient cycling, scenic beauty, etc.

30. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings D. Do we have ethical obligations to other species? 1) Many people feel that other organisms have intrinsic value and an inherent right to exist. Do we have an ethical obligation to not kill off other species?

31. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings VII. Laws Protecting Biodiversity A. Endangered Species Act (1973) (ESA) = forbids the government and private citizens from taking actions that destroy endangered species or their habitats -To prevent extinction -Stabilize declining populations -Enable populations to recover -ESA also mandates habitat protection ( does not allow development on private land if necessary) B. As of 2014, the U.S. had 1,361 species listed as endangered or threatened

32. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings C. Successes of ESA 1. Bald Eagles: Only 600 left in the world in the 1960’s, today over 14,000. 2. Only 6 species on the endangered species list have gone extinct. Scientists estimate that without the protection of ESA, over 170 species would have gone extinct. 3. Over 40% of declining species populations are now stable 4. These successes occur despite underfunding of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service

33. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings D. The ESA can be controversial 1) Many Americans support protection of endangered species 2) Opponents feel that the ESA values endangered organisms more than the livelihood of people -Private land use will be restricted if an endangered species is present -Economic activities such as logging (Spotted Owl) may be suspended

34. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings E. What do other countries do about protecting their endangered species? To successfully protect the environment in any way by a government, the following usually needs to be done: 1)Write and pass law 2)Fund law (money from country’s treasury) 3)Enforce law Many countries’ endangered species laws are unfunded or unenforced.

35. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings F. International Species Protection CITES – (1973) the UN Convention on Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora – Focused on trade on wildlife and wildlife parts. In 1990, CITES was modified to include a ban on ivory. Prohibits international travel/trade of endangered species body parts (tusks, pelts, ect).