1. Biology: Life on Earth Eighth Edition Biology: Life on Earth Eighth Edition Lecture for Chapter 9 Molecules of Heredity Lecture for Chapter 9 Molecules of Heredity Copyright © 2008 Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc. Teresa Audesirk Gerald Audesirk Bruce E. Byers

3. Chapter 9 Outline 9.1 How Did Scientists Discover That Genes Are Made of DNA? p. 150 9.2 What Is the Structure of DNA? p. 151 9.3 How Does DNA Encode Information? p. 157 9.4 How Does DNA Replication Ensure Genetic Constancy During Cell Division? p. 157 9.5 How Do Mutations Occur? p. 158

4. Genes Are Made of DNA Known since the late 1800s: 1.Heritable information is carried in discrete units called genes 2.Genes are parts of structures called chromosomes 3.Chromosomes are made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and protein

5. Section 9.2 Outline 9.2 What Is the Structure of DNA? –DNA Is Composed of Four Nucleotides –DNA Is a Double Helix of Two Nucleotide Strands –Hydrogen Bonds Between Complementary Bases Hold Two DNA Strands Together

6. DNA Is Composed of Four Nucleotides DNA is made of chains of small subunits called nucleotides

9. DNA Is Composed of Four Nucleotides Each nucleotide has three components: 1.Phosphate group 2.Deoxyribose sugar 3.One of four nitrogen-containing bases –Thymine –Cytosine –Adenine –Guanine

10. DNA Is Composed of Four Nucleotides In 1940, biochemist E. Chargaff determined that: –In a DNA molecule, amounts of A = T, G = C –“Chargaff’s Rule”

11. DNA Is a Double Helix In the 1940s several other scientists investigated the structure of DNA From X-ray diffraction patterns they deduced that DNA –Is long and thin –Has a uniform diameter of 2 nanometers –Is helical, and is twisted like a corkscrew –Consists of repeating subunits

12. DNA Is a Double Helix James Watson and Francis Crick combined the X-ray data with bonding theory to deduce DNA structure: –DNA is made of two strands of nucleotides –The deoxyribose and phosphate portions make up the sugar-phosphate backbone

13. Hydrogen Bonds Nitrogen-containing bases protrude inward from sugar-phosphate backbone Hydrogen bonds hold certain nitrogenous base pairs together –A bonds with T, G bonds with C –Bonding bases called complementary base pairs Ladder-like structure of the two DNA strands are twisted into a double helix

15. 9.3 How Does DNA Encode Information? How can a molecule with only 4 simple parts be the carrier of genetic information? The key lies in the sequence, not number, of subunits Within a DNA strand, the four types of bases can be arranged in any linear order, and this sequence is what encodes genetic information

16. How Does DNA Encode Information? The genetic code is analogous to languages, where small sets of letters combine in various ways to make up many different words – English has 26 letters – Hawaiian has 2 letters – The binary language of computers uses only two “letters” (0 and 1, or “on” and “off”)

17. How Does DNA Encode Information? The sequence of only four nucleotides can produce many different combinations –A 10 nucleotide sequence can code for greater than 1 million different combinations

18. Section 9.4 Outline 9.4 How Does DNA Replication Ensure Genetic Constancy During Cell Division? –Replication of DNA Is a Critical Event in a Cell’s Life –Replicated DNA Is Half New and Half Old

19. DNA Replication All cells come from pre-existing cells Cells reproduce by dividing in half Each of two daughter cells gets an exact copy of parent cell’s genetic information Duplication of the parent cell DNA is called replication

20. DNA Replication DNA replication begins when DNA helicases separate the two strands –Hydrogen bonds between bases are broken A second strand of new DNA is synthesized along each separated strand by DNA polymerases, which position free nucleotides across from complementary nucleotides

22. DNA Replication Base pairing is the foundation of DNA replication –An adenine on one strand pairs with a thymine on the other strand; a cytosine pairs with guanine –If one strand reads ATG, the other reads TAC

23. DNA Replication The two resulting DNA molecules have one old parental strand and one new strand (semiconservative replication)

25. Section 9.5 Outline 9.5 How Do Mutations Occur? –Accurate Replication and Proofreading Produce Almost Error-Free DNA –Mistakes Do Happen –Mutations Range from Changes in Single Nucleotides to Movements of Large Pieces of Chromosomes –Mutations May Have Varying Effects on Function

26. Replication And Proofreading During replication, DNA polymerase mismatches nucleotides once every 10,000 base pairs DNA repair enzymes “proofread” each new daughter strand, replacing mismatched nucleotides However…

27. Mistakes Do Happen DNA is damaged in a number of ways Spontaneous chemical breakdown at body temperature Certain chemicals (some components of cigarette smoke) UV light from the sun causes DNA damage –DNA damage leads to uncontrollable cell division and skin cancer

28. Types of Mutations Point mutation - individual nucleotide in the DNA sequence is changed Insertion mutation - one or more nucleotide pairs are inserted into the DNA double helix Deletion mutation - one or more nucleotide pairs are removed from the double helix

29. Types of Mutations Inversion - piece of DNA is cut out of a chromosome, turned around, and re- inserted into the gap Translocation - chunk of DNA (often very large) is removed from one chromosome and attached to another Refer to your handout and textbook for images of all 5 types of mutations