1. How Cells Reproduce Chapter 9

2. Impacts, Issues Henrietta’s Immortal Cells  Henrietta Lacks died of cancer at age 31, but her cells (HeLa cells) are still growing in laboratories

3. Henrietta Lacks  Cancer cells used in research to identify viral strains, investigate cancer, study the effects of radiation on cells, develop techniques for polio vaccine.

4. Mitosis, Meiosis, and the Prokaryotes  Eukaryotic cells Mitosis copies DNA and divides a nucleus, producing two identical daughter cells; asexual reproduction (clones); exception identical twins Meiosis is a nuclear division that produces haploid gametes for sexual reproduction (two parents involved)  Prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually by prokaryotic fission

5. A comparision of Mitosis and Meiosis Mitosis – Greek Mitos = thread  Division of eukaryotic cell or mother cell into two identical cells (daughter cells – receives copies of the original chromosome.  Occurs in somatic cells  Diploid chromosomes (46) – two sets Meiosis  A type of division that reduces the chromosome number from diploid to haploid  Occurs in germ cells (gametes – egg and sperm)  Haploid chromosomes (23) - a single set

6. Mitosis  Clones  One nuclear division  Parent = 8 chromosomes and the daughter cells = 8 Meiosis  Variation in traits  Two nuclear divisions (meiosis I and meisosis II  Meiosis II resembles mitosis  Parent = 46 and egg/sperm = 23

7. Why do cells divide (Mitosis)  Growth  Repair of damaged tissue (ex. Healing of a wound)  Replacement of worn out cells (RBC’s)  Asexual reproduction (single celled organism producing a clone or exact copy of itself)

8. Key Points About Chromosome Structure  Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes that differ in length and shape Each consists of one double strand of DNA After duplication, each consists of two double strands (sister chromatids) that remain attached to each other at a centromere until late in nuclear division – Study Figure 9.2

9. Key Points About Chromosome Structure  A chromosome consists of DNA that is wrapped around proteins (histones) and condensed  Each histone and the DNA wrapped around it make up a nucleosome

10. Animation: The cell cycle

11. 9.2 Introducing the Cell Cycle  Cell cycle A sequence of three stages (interphase, mitosis, and cytoplasmic division) through which a cell passes between one cell division and the next

12. Interphase  Interphase consists of three stages, during which a cell increases in size, doubles the number of cytoplasmic components, and duplicates its DNA G1: Interval of cell growth and activity; before the onset of DNA replication S: Interval of DNA replication, synthesis or duplication (two DNA double helix) G2: Interval when the cell prepares for division; the stage before cytoplasmic division

13. Interphase and the Life of a Cell  Most cell activities take place during G1  Control mechanisms work at certain points in the cell cycle; some can keep cells in G1 (muscle and nerve cells)  Loss of control may cause cell death or cancer

14. Mitosis and the Chromosome Number  Mitosis produces two diploid nuclei/cells with the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent or mother cell ( each new cell receives copies of all the original chromosomes)  Chromosome number The sum of all chromosomes in a type of cell Human cells have 46 chromosomes paired in 23 sets - Study Figure 9.5a Pairs have the same shape and information about the same traits

15. 9.3 A Closer Look at Mitosis  When a cell undergoes mitosis, the daughter cells have identical chromosomes, and the daughter cell has chromosomes identical to those of the mother cell that produced it.  There are four main stages/sequences of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

16. Prophase  Prophase Chromosomes condense Microtubules form a bipolar spindle or spindle apparatus (becomes visible) Nuclear envelope/membrane breaks up and disappears Microtubules attach to the chromosomes

17. Metaphase and Anaphase  Metaphase (meta = between) All duplicated chromosomes line up at the spindle equator (midway)  Anaphase Microtubules separate the sister chromatids of each chromosome and pull them to opposite spindle poles

18. Telophase  Telophase Two clusters of chromosomes reach the spindle poles A new nuclear envelope or membrane reforms  Two new cells are formed, each with the same chromosome number as the parent cell

19. 9.4 Cytoplasmic Division Mechanisms  In most kinds of eukaryotes, the cell cytoplasm divides between late anaphase and the end of telophase, but the mechanism of division differs  Cytokinesis The process of cytoplasmic division or distribution Plants cytokinesis leads to cell plate formation Animals cytokinesis leads to the formation of a contractile ring (cleavage furrow)

20. Animation: Cytoplasmic division

21. 9.5 When Control is Lost  Sometimes, controls over cell division are lost Cancer may be the outcome

22. Cell Cycle Controls  Checkpoints in the cell cycle (at G1, G2, and M) and allow problems to be corrected before the cycle advances  Proteins produced by checkpoint genes interact to advance, delay, or stop the cell cycle Kinases – stops the cycle if DNA is damaged or kills the cell Growth factors – stimulates a cell to grow and divide (ex repairs injuries)

23. Checkpoint Failure and Tumors  When all checkpoint mechanisms fail, a cell loses control over its cell cycle and may form a tumor (abnormal mass of cells) in surrounding tissue  Usually one or more checkpoint gene products are missing in tumor cells Tumor suppressor gene products inhibit mitosis Proto oncogene products stimulate mitosis

24. Neoplasms  Carcinogens – chemicals that cause cancer  Neoplasms AKA tumors Abnormal masses of cells that lack control over how they grow and divide Benign neoplasms (such as ordinary skin moles) stay in one place and are not cancerous; do not pose a threat to surrounding tissues Malignant neoplasms are cancerous; cells may break away, spread and invade distant tissues (metastasis)

25. Benign and Malignant Tumors

26. Animation: Cancer and metastasis

27. Skin Cancers

28. Animation: Mitosis

29. ABC video: Blood test for lung cancer

30. Video: Henrietta's immortal cells