1. COSTS OF REPRODUCTION

2. COSTS FOR FEMALES A. Gestational Costs –

3. COSTS FOR FEMALES B. Lactational Costs – Compared with pregnancy costs 80% 200+%

4. COSTS FOR FEMALES B. Lactational Costs – Effect of litter size 2x

5. COSTS FOR FEMALES C. Variation Due to Sex of Offspring – Polygyny and sexual dimorphism

6. COSTS FOR FEMALES

7. C. Variation Due to Sex of Offspring

8. COSTS FOR FEMALES C. Variation Due to Sex of Offspring – Bighorn sheep:

9. COSTS FOR FEMALES C. Variation Due to Sex of Offspring – Bighorn sheep:

10. COSTS FOR MALES A. Behavioral – Increased movements during breeding season

11. COSTS FOR MALES A. Behavioral – Increased scent marking during breeding season

12. COSTS FOR MALES A. Behavioral – Costs of fighting red deer – 13-29% of mortality mule deer – 19% injury

13. COSTS FOR MALES B. Morphological – antler growth

14. COSTS FOR MALES C. Physiological – Example: Brown antechinus

15. COSTS FOR MALES C. Physiological – Brown antechinus males

16. COSTS FOR MALES C. Physiological – Example: Brown antechinus

17. COSTS COMMON TO BOTH SEXES The cost of poor mate choice l inbreeding l immunodeficiencies l lowered reproductive success

18. CUTTING REPRODUCTIVE COSTS: SEX RATIO VARIATION A. Theories for Adjusting Sex Ratios at Birth – Variation in reproductive success of males and females (Trivers-Willard hypothesis)

19. CUTTING REPRODUCTIVE COSTS: SEX RATIO VARIATION A. Theories for Adjusting Sex Ratios at Birth Predictions of Trivers-Willard for polygynous species:

20. CUTTING REPRODUCTIVE COSTS: SEX RATIO VARIATION A. Theories for Adjusting Sex Ratios at Birth – Local resource competition In primates: – inheritance of female dominance, so …

21. …male reproductive success is not closely tied to maternal investment Mandrill Japanese macaques Proboscis monkeys

22. CUTTING REPRODUCTIVE COSTS: SEX RATIO VARIATION A. Theories for Adjusting Sex Ratios at Birth – Local resource competition Predictions: – produce philopatric sex if resources plentiful – only dominant females produce philopatric sex if food scarce

23. CUTTING REPRODUCTIVE COSTS: SEX RATIO VARIATION B. Potential Causes – Timing of insemination

24. CUTTING REPRODUCTIVE COSTS: SEX RATIO VARIATION B. Potential Causes – Sperm selection in females Production of leukocytes

25. CUTTING REPRODUCTIVE COSTS: SEX RATIO VARIATION B. Potential Causes – Sperm selection in males

26. CUTTING COSTS: COOPERATIVE BREEDING A. Carnivores biparental or communal care higher milk production increased postnatal growth rates

27. CUTTING COSTS: COOPERATIVE BREEDING B. Primates (marmosets) elevated growth rates reduced intervals between births

28. CUTTING COSTS: COOPERATIVE BREEDING C. Rodents (prairie voles) older juvenile helpers increased weight at weaning shorter time to eye opening

29. CUTTING COSTS: INFANTICIDE AS A REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGY A. An Evolutionary Perspective – Males safeguard paternity – Males increase offspring sired – Females reduce losses Hanuman langurs

30. CUTTING COSTS: INFANTICIDE AS A REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGY B. Removing the Log from Our Own Eye – Darwin on infanticide in humans – Infanticide in societies hunter-gatherers ancient Greece 18th century Europe and bed deaths girls in colonial America girls in India, China