1. NATURAL GAS Natural gas, consisting mostly of methane, is often found above reservoirs of crude oil. – When a natural gas-field is tapped, gasses are liquefied and removed as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Coal beds and bubbles of methane trapped in ice crystals deep under the arctic permafrost and beneath deep-ocean sediments are unconventional sources of natural gas.

2. NATURAL GAS Russia and Iran have almost half of the world’s reserves of conventional gas, and global reserves should last 62-125 years. Natural gas is versatile and clean-burning fuel, but it releases the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide (when burned) and methane (from leaks) into the troposphere.

3. COAL Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is formed in several stages as the buried remains of land plants that lived 300-400 million years ago. Figure 16-12

4. Fig. 16-12, p. 368 Increasing heat and carbon content Increasing moisture content Peat (not a coal) Lignite (brown coal) Bituminous (soft coal) Anthracite (hard coal) Heat Pressure Partially decayed plant matter in swamps and bogs; low heat content Low heat content; low sulfur content; limited supplies in most areas Extensively used as a fuel because of its high heat content and large supplies; normally has a high sulfur content Highly desirable fuel because of its high heat content and low sulfur content; supplies are limited in most areas

5. Fig. 16-13, p. 369 Waste heat Coal bunker Turbine Cooling tower transfers waste heat to atmosphere Generator Cooling loop Stack Pulverizing mill Condenser Filter Boiler Toxic ash disposal

6. COAL Coal reserves in the United States, Russia, and China could last hundreds to over a thousand years. – The U.S. has 27% of the world’s proven coal reserves, followed by Russia (17%), and China (13%). – In 2005, China and the U.S. accounted for 53% of the global coal consumption.

7. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES About 99% of the energy we use for heat comes from the sun and the other 1% comes mostly from burning fossil fuels. – Solar energy indirectly supports wind power, hydropower, and biomass. About 76% of the commercial energy we use comes from nonrenewable fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal) with the remainder coming from renewable sources.

8. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES Nonrenewable energy resources and geothermal energy in the earth’s crust. Figure 16-2

9. Fig. 16-2, p. 357 Oil and natural gas Floating oil drilling platform Oil storage Coal Contour strip mining Oil drilling platform on legs Geothermal energy Hot water storage Oil well Pipeline Geothermal power plant Gas well Valves Mined coal Pump Area strip mining Drilling tower Pipeline Impervious rock Underground coal mine Natural gas Water Oil Water is heated and brought up as dry steam or wet steam Water Coal seam Hot rock Water penetrates down through the rock Magma

10. TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES Commercial energy use by source for the world (left) and the U.S. (right). Figure 16-3

11. REDUCING ENERGY WASTE AND IMPROVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY Four widely used devices waste large amounts of energy: – Incandescent light bulb: 95% is lost as heat. – Internal combustion engine: 94% of the energy in its fuel is wasted. – Nuclear power plant: 92% of energy is wasted through nuclear fuel and energy needed for waste management. – Coal-burning power plant: 66% of the energy released by burning coal is lost.

12. USING RENEWABLE SOLAR ENERGY TO PROVIDE HEAT AND ELECTRICITY A variety of renewable-energy resources are available but their use has been hindered by a lack of government support compared to nonrenewable fossil fuels and nuclear power. – Direct solar – Moving water – Wind – Geothermal

13. USING RENEWABLE SOLAR ENERGY TO PROVIDE HEAT AND ELECTRICITY The European Union aims to get 22% of its electricity from renewable energy by 2010. Costa Rica gets 92% of its energy from renewable resources. China aims to get 10% of its total energy from renewable resources by 2020. In 2004, California got about 12% of its electricity from wind and plans to increase this to 50% by 2030.

14. USING RENEWABLE SOLAR ENERGY TO PROVIDE HEAT AND ELECTRICITY Denmark now gets 20% of its electricity from wind and plans to increase this to 50% by 2030. Brazil gets 20% of its gasoline from sugarcane residue. In 2004, the world’s renewable-energy industries provided 1.7 million jobs.

15. Solar Types – photovoltaic cells (convert sunlight directly to electricity with a 10% efficiency) and solar thermal systems (sun’s heat is used to heat bodies of water enough to produce steam that can be used to make electricity) Energy conversion – radiant/heat to electrical, heat or mechanical Benefits – pollution-free, unlimited source Costs – not useful in cloudy areas or at night, we do not have the technology needed to use very efficiently

16. Producing Electricity with Solar Cells Photovoltaic (PV) cells can provide electricity for a house of building using solar-cell roof shingles. Figure 17-17

17. Fig. 17-17, p. 398 Single solar cell Solar-cell roof – Boron enriched silicon + Junction Phosphorus enriched silicon Roof options Panels of solar cells Solar shingles

18. Producing Electricity with Solar Cells Solar cells can be used in rural villages with ample sunlight who are not connected to an electrical grid. Figure 17-18

19. Core Case Study: The Coming Energy- Efficiency and Renewable-Energy Revolution It is possible to get electricity from solar cells that convert sunlight into electricity. – Can be attached like shingles on a roof. – Can be applied to window glass as a coating. – Can be mounted on racks almost anywhere.

20. Core Case Study: The Coming Energy- Efficiency and Renewable-Energy Revolution The heating bill for this energy-efficient passive solar radiation office in Colorado is $50 a year. Figure 17-1

22. Passive Solar Heating Passive solar heating system absorbs and stores heat from the sun directly within a structure without the need for pumps to distribute the heat. Figure 17-13

23. Fig. 17-13, p. 396 Direct Gain Summer sun Hot air Warm air Super- insulated windows Winter sun Cool air Earth tubes Ceiling and north wall heavily insulated

24. Fig. 17-13, p. 396 Greenhouse, Sunspace, or Attached Solarium Summer cooling vent Warm air Insulated windows Cool air

25. Fig. 17-13, p. 396 Earth Sheltered Reinforced concrete, carefully waterproofed walls and roof Triple-paned or superwindows Earth Flagstone floor for heat storage

26. Fig. 17-14, p. 396 Trade-Offs Passive or Active Solar Heating AdvantagesDisadvantages Energy is freeNeed access to sun 60% of time Net energy is moderate (active) to high (passive) Sun blocked by other structures Need heat storage system Quick installation No CO 2 emissions Very low air and water pollution High cost (active) Very low land disturbance (built into roof or window) Active system needs maintenance and repair Moderate cost (passive) Active collectors unattractive

27. Cooling Houses Naturally We can cool houses by: – Superinsulating them. – Taking advantages of breezes. – Shading them. – Having light colored or green roofs. – Using geothermal cooling.

28. Wind Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical Benefits – pollution-free, source is free (used in West Texas, Hawaii, California, and more) Costs – can only be used in places with lots of wind

29. PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM WIND Wind power is the world’s most promising energy resource because it is abundant, inexhaustible, widely distributed, cheap, clean, and emits no greenhouse gases. Much of the world’s potential for wind power remains untapped. Capturing only 20% of the wind energy at the world’s best energy sites could meet all the world’s energy demands.

30. PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM WIND Wind turbines can be used individually to produce electricity. They are also used interconnected in arrays on wind farms. Figure 17-21

31. PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM WIND The United States once led the wind power industry, but Europe now leads this rapidly growing business. – The U.S. government lacked subsidies, tax breaks and other financial incentives. European companies manufacture 80% of the wind turbines sold in the global market – The success has been aided by strong government subsidies.

35. Biomass Description – any type of organic matter (forest products, crop wastes, animal wastes, people wastes, etc.) that can be used to produce energy; currently used for about 5% of U.S. energy Energy conversion – chemical to electrical or heat Benefits – cheap, less toxic pollutants, using wastes effectively, currently used in Rio Grande Valley with the burning of sugar cane residue, also produces food, feed, and fiber Costs – we don’t have all the technology needed to use this well right now, not useful in every location, some pollution is produced

36. PRODUCING ENERGY FROM BIOMASS Plant materials and animal wastes can be burned to provide heat or electricity or converted into gaseous or liquid biofuels. Figure 17-23

37. PRODUCING ENERGY FROM BIOMASS The scarcity of fuelwood causes people to make fuel briquettes from cow dung in India. This deprives soil of plant nutrients. Figure 17-24

38. Fig. 17-25, p. 405 Trade-Offs Solid Biomass AdvantagesDisadvantages Large potential supply in some areas Nonrenewable if harvested unsustainably Moderate costs Moderate to high environmental impact No net CO 2 increase if harvested and burned sustainably CO 2 emissions if harvested and burned unsustainably Low photosynthetic efficiency Plantation can be located on semiarid land not needed for crops Soil erosion, water pollution, and loss of wildlife habitat Plantation can help restore degraded lands Plantations could compete with cropland Often burned in inefficient and polluting open fires and stoves Can make use of agricultural, timber, and urban wastes

39. Water Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical or heat Benefits – already have the technology to do this, pollution free, dams are also useful as water sources and flood controls; world’s largest source of electrical power Costs – there are environmental costs to building new dams, there are not rivers located everywhere Read James Bay Watershed Transfer Project Miller Page 304

40. PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM THE WATER CYCLE Water flowing in rivers and streams can be trapped in reservoirs behind dams and released as needed to spin turbines and produce electricity. There is little room for expansion in the U.S. – Dams and reservoirs have been created on 98% of suitable rivers.

41. Fig. 17-20, p. 400 Trade-Offs Large-Scale Hydropower AdvantagesDisadvantages Moderate to high net energyHigh construction costs Large untapped potential High environmental impact from flooding land to form a reservoir High efficiency (80%) High CO 2 emissions from biomass decay in shallow tropical reservoirs Low-cost electricity Long life span No CO 2 emissions during operation in temperate areas Floods natural areas behind dam May provide flood control below dam Converts land habitat to lake habitat Danger of collapse Provides water for year-round irrigation of cropland Uproots people Decreases fish harvest below dam Reservoir is useful for fishing and recreation Decreases flow of natural fertilizer (silt) to land below dam

42. Geothermal Description – heat from deep within the earth is used to produce electricity This is the only energy source that doesn’t come from the sun! Energy conversion – thermal to electrical and heat Benefits – pollution-free, used near Waco and in Iceland Costs – not available everywhere, we don’t have all the technology needed to use it

43. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Geothermal energy consists of heat stored in soil, underground rocks, and fluids in the earth’s mantle. We can use geothermal energy stored in the earth’s mantle to heat and cool buildings and to produce electricity. – A geothermal heat pump (GHP) can heat and cool a house by exploiting the difference between the earth’s surface and underground temperatures.

44. Geothermal Heat Pump The house is heated in the winter by transferring heat from the ground into the house. The process is reversed in the summer to cool the house. Figure 17-31

47. Tidal Power Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical Benefits – pollution-free, cheap, renewable Costs – only two places in the U.S. have tides needed to do this

49. Wave Power Energy conversion – kinetic to electrical Benefits – pollution-free, cheap, renewable Costs - only suitable in areas facing the open ocean (especially on the West Coasts of continents); tend to be destroyed in storms

50. PRODUCING ELECTRICITY FROM THE WATER CYCLE Ocean tides and waves and temperature differences between surface and bottom waters in tropical waters are not expected to provide much of the world’s electrical needs. Only two large tidal energy dams are currently operating: one in La Rance, France and Nova Scotia’s bay of Fundy where the tidal amplitude can be as high as 16 meters (63 feet).

52. NUCLEAR ENERGY When isotopes of uranium and plutonium undergo controlled nuclear fission, the resulting heat produces steam that spins turbines to generate electricity. – The uranium oxide consists of about 97% nonfissionable uranium-238 and 3% fissionable uranium-235. – The concentration of uranium-235 is increased through an enrichment process.

53. Fig. 16-16, p. 372 Small amounts of radioactive gases Uranium fuel input (reactor core) Control rods Containment shell Heat exchanger Steam Turbine Generator Waste heat Electric power Hot coolant Useful energy 25%–30% Hot water output Pump Coolant Pump Moderator Cool water input Waste heat Shielding Pressure vessel Coolant passage Water Condenser Periodic removal and storage of radioactive wastes and spent fuel assemblies Periodic removal and storage of radioactive liquid wastes Water source (river, lake, ocean)

54. NUCLEAR ENERGY After three or four years in a reactor, spent fuel rods are removed and stored in a deep pool of water contained in a steel-lined concrete container. Figure 16-17

55. NUCLEAR ENERGY After spent fuel rods are cooled considerably, they are sometimes moved to dry-storage containers made of steel or concrete. Figure 16-17

56. What Happened to Nuclear Power? After more than 50 years of development and enormous government subsidies, nuclear power has not lived up to its promise because: – Multi billion-dollar construction costs. – Higher operation costs and more malfunctions than expected. – Poor management. – Public concerns about safety and stricter government safety regulations.

57. Case Study: The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident The world’s worst nuclear power plant accident occurred in 1986 in Ukraine. The disaster was caused by poor reactor design and human error. By 2005, 56 people had died from radiation released. – 4,000 more are expected from thyroid cancer and leukemia.

58. NUCLEAR ENERGY A 1,000 megawatt nuclear plant is refueled once a year, whereas a coal plant requires 80 rail cars a day. Figure 16-20

59. Fig. 16-20, p. 376 Coal vs. Nuclear Trade-Offs CoalNuclear Ample supply Ample supply of uranium High net energy yield Low net energy yield Very high air pollution Low air pollution (mostly from fuel reprocessing) High CO 2 emissions Low CO 2 emissions (mostly from fuel reprocessing) High land disruption from surface mining Much lower land disruption from surface mining Low cost (with huge subsidies) High cost (even with huge subsidies) High land use Moderate land use

60. NUCLEAR ENERGY Terrorists could attack nuclear power plants, especially poorly protected pools and casks that store spent nuclear fuel rods. Terrorists could wrap explosives around small amounts of radioactive materials that are fairly easy to get, detonate such bombs, and contaminate large areas for decades.

61. NUCLEAR ENERGY When a nuclear reactor reaches the end of its useful life, its highly radioactive materials must be kept from reaching the environment for thousands of years. At least 228 large commercial reactors worldwide (20 in the U.S.) are scheduled for retirement by 2012. – Many reactors are applying to extent their 40- year license to 60 years. – Aging reactors are subject to embrittlement and corrosion.

62. NUCLEAR ENERGY Building more nuclear power plants will not lessen dependence on imported oil and will not reduce CO 2 emissions as much as other alternatives. – The nuclear fuel cycle contributes to CO 2 emissions. – Wind turbines, solar cells, geothermal energy, and hydrogen contributes much less to CO 2 emissions.

63. NUCLEAR ENERGY Scientists disagree about the best methods for long-term storage of high-level radioactive waste: – Bury it deep underground. – Shoot it into space. – Bury it in the Antarctic ice sheet. – Bury it in the deep-ocean floor that is geologically stable. – Change it into harmless or less harmful isotopes.

64. Nuclear Description – using fission to split large uranium atoms into smaller products and releasing tremendous amounts of heat energy which is used to make steam that turns turbines to create electricity Energy conversion – nuclear to electrical and heat Benefits – pollution-free, very, very efficient Costs – risk of accidents (spread of radioactivity); transportation and disposal of radioactive wastes (Nimby!) It also produces a ton of thermal pollution!

65. WAYS TO IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY We can save energy in building by getting heat from the sun, superinsulating them, and using plant covered green roofs. We can save energy in existing buildings by insulating them, plugging leaks, and using energy-efficient heating and cooling systems, appliances, and lighting.

66. Strawbale House Strawbale is a superinsulator that is made from bales of low-cost straw covered with plaster or adobe. Depending on the thickness of the bales, its strength exceeds standard construction. Figure 17-9

67. Living Roofs Roofs covered with plants have been used for decades in Europe and Iceland. These roofs are built from a blend of light-weight compost, mulch and sponge-like materials that hold water. Figure 17-10

68. Saving Energy in Existing Buildings About one-third of the heated air in typical U.S. homes and buildings escapes through closed windows and holes and cracks. Figure 17-11

69. Approximate Energy Efficiencies: Photosynthesis: 1% Incandescent light bulbs: 95%

70. Definition Any fuel that meets certain emissions standards; i.e. they give off a certain amount of pollution (or less) Alternative Fuels

71. Laws Involved Clean Air Act amendments of 1990 Energy Policy Act (EPACT) in Texas of 1992 Such laws have led to more research and development of these fuels

72. Examples of Alternative Fuels Biodiesel – made of vegetable oils and alcohols; expensive Diesel – cleaner than “normal” gasoline, being more refined Biogas – by-product of decaying vegetation; need technology Hydrogen – expensive and we need more technology

73. Ethanol/Methanol – alcohols; not as efficient (Miles per gallon) and we don’t have all the technology ; also, if our grain supplies are used to make fuel, will we have enough to feed the world? Natural Gas – expensive and we need more technology Reformulated Gasoline (RFG) – regular gas that has been further refined to remove some of the more toxic pollutants

74. Propane – most usable form of alternative fuel; not as efficient (mpg) Syngas – manmade gas made of hydrogen and carbon monoxide; need more technology to use it

75. HYDROGEN Some energy experts view hydrogen gas as the best fuel to replace oil during the last half of the century, but there are several hurdles to overcome: – Hydrogen is chemically locked up in water an organic compounds. – It takes energy and money to produce it (net energy is low). – Fuel cells are expensive. – Hydrogen may be produced by using fossil fuels.

76. Energy Laws Public Utility Holding Company Act (PUHCA) – 1935; regulated the interstate flow of energy; 1 st law of its kind; a law designed to protect consumers from corporate abuse of electricity markets (so electric companies can’t price gouge.) This was happening during the great depression.

77. Corporate Average Fuel Economy Act (CAFÉ) –1975; focused attention on efficiency of cars; mpg stickers required Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA)–1978; higher utility rates for increased electricity use

78. Converting Plants and Plant Wastes to Liquid Biofuels: An Overview Motor vehicles can run on ethanol, biodiesel, and methanol produced from plants and plant wastes. The major advantages of biofuels are: – Crops used for production can be grown almost anywhere. – There is no net increase in CO 2 emissions. – Widely available and easy to store and transport.

79. Case Study: Producing Ethanol Crops such as sugarcane, corn, and switchgrass and agricultural, forestry and municipal wastes can be converted to ethanol. Switchgrass can remove CO 2 from the troposphere and store it in the soil. Figure 17-26

80. Case Study: Producing Ethanol 10-23% pure ethanol makes gasohol which can be run in conventional motors. 85% ethanol (E85) must be burned in flex-fuel cars. Processing all corn grown in the U.S. into ethanol would cover only about 55 days of current driving. Biodiesel is made by combining alcohol with vegetable oil made from a variety of different plants..

81. Case Study: Biodiesel and Methanol Growing crops for biodiesel could potentially promote deforestation. Methanol is made mostly from natural gas but can also be produced at a higher cost from CO 2 from the atmosphere which could help slow global warming. – Can also be converted to other hydrocarbons to produce chemicals that are now made from petroleum and natural gas.

82. WAYS TO IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY Average fuel economy of new vehicles sold in the U.S. between 1975-2006. The government Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) has not increased after 1985. Figure 17-5

83. Fig. 17-5, p. 388 Cars Both Average fuel economy (miles per gallon, or mpg) Model year Pickups, vans, and sport utility vehicles

84. WAYS TO IMPROVE ENERGY EFFICIENCY General features of a car powered by a hybrid-electric engine. “Gas sipping” cars account for less than 1% of all new car sales in the U.S. Figure 17-7

85. Fig. 17-7, p. 389 Regulator: Controls flow of power between electric motor and battery bank. Fuel tank: Liquid fuel such as gasoline, diesel, or ethanol runs small combustion engine. Transmission: Efficient 5-speed automatic transmission. Battery: High-density battery powers electric motor for increased power. Combustion engine: Small, efficient internal combustion engine powers vehicle with low emmissions; shuts off at low speeds and stops. Electric motor: Traction drive provides additional power for passing and acceleration; excess energy recovered during braking is used to help power motor. FuelElectricity

86. Hybrid Vehicles, Sustainable Wind Power, and Oil imports Hybrid gasoline-electric engines with an extra plug-in battery could be powered mostly by electricity produced by wind and get twice the mileage of current hybrid cars. – Currently plug-in batteries would by generated by coal and nuclear power plants. – According to U.S. Department of Energy, a network of wind farms in just four states could meet all U.S. electricity means.

87. Fuel-Cell Vehicles Fuel-efficient vehicles powered by a fuel cell that runs on hydrogen gas are being developed. Combines hydrogen gas (H 2 ) and oxygen gas (O 2 ) fuel to produce electricity and water vapor (2H 2 +O 2  2H 2 O). Emits no air pollution or CO 2 if the hydrogen is produced from renewable- energy sources.

88. Fig. 17-8, p. 390 Body attachments Mechanical locks that secure the body to the chassis Air system management Universal docking connection Connects the chassis with the drive-by-wire system in the body Fuel-cell stack Converts hydrogen fuel into electricity Rear crush zone Absorbs crash energy Drive-by-wire system controls Cabin heating unit Side-mounted radiators Release heat generated by the fuel cell, vehicle electronics, and wheel motors Hydrogen fuel tanks Front crush zone Absorbs crash energy Electric wheel motors Provide four-wheel drive; have built-in brakes

90. National Appliance Energy Act – 1987; energy efficiency stickers on all appliances

91. Renewable Energy and Technology Competitiveness Act – 1989; effort to develop renewable energy nationally Clean Air Act Amendments – 1990; set standards for cities and emissions Energy Policy Act – 1992; comprehensive effort to find renewable energy resources

92. Hydrogen Future Act – 1996; develop hydrogen as an energy source PROBLEM – FEW of these actually provide the money needed to research renewable resources