1. ECDA September 2009

2. DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES  Digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller particles or individual nutrients.  It is accomplished through six basic processes, with the help of several body fluids—particularly digestive juices that are made up of compounds such as saliva, mucus, enzymes, hydrochloric acid, bicarbonate, and bile.

3. DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES The processes of digestion involve: (1) the movement of food and liquids (2) the lubrication of food with bodily secretions (3) the mechanical breakdown of carbohydrates molecules (4) the reabsorption of nutrients—especially water (5) the excretion of waste products. Comprehension of the tasks or processes needed to break down food are essential to an understanding of how and when food really begins to function within the body.

4. DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES  Digestion begins in the mouth with the action of salivary amylase.  Chewed food moves by peristalsis, from the mouth to the pharynx, and then past the epiglottis that covers the larynx.  The food material then progresses past the esophagus and into the stomach.

5. DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES  Food mixtures leaving the stomach are called chyme, and this empties into the small intestine after about 2 to 4 hours in the stomach.  In the stomach, carbohydrates in foods turn to starch, but it is not until the chyme reaches the small intestine and becomes more neutralized that starch turns to simple sugars that are then absorbed into the portal vein, which transports them to the liver.

6. DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES  Most digestion occurs in the upper portion of the small intestine, called the duodenum.  Below the duodenum is the jejunum, and then there is the last segment, called the ileum. About 5 percent of undigested food products are broken down in the ileum. This is why some people can have a small part of their intestine removed by surgery and still seem to digest most foods with little problem.

7. DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES  The pancreas makes pancreatic juice consisting of enzymes (amylases, lipases, and proteases) and bicarbonate, which helps neutralize acidic secretions produced during digestion.  The pancreas delivers the pancreatic juice to the small intestine, in response to a signal of food in the intestine and the release of the hormone secretin.  The pancreas also has another function, the secretion of the hormones insulin and glucagon, which helps maintain a steady state of blood sugar in the body insulin decreases blood glucose concentration glucagon increases glucose in the blood

8. DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES  Digestion of food in the small intestine is usually complete after three to ten hours.  Once digestion is essentially finished, waste products leave the ileum with the help of fiber, and these solids then enter the large intestine (the colon).

9. GLYCOLYSIS

10.  Glycolysis, through anaerobic respiration, is the main energy source in many prokaryotes, eukaryotes without mitochondria (e.g., mature RBCs) and eukaryotic cells under low-oxygen conditions (e.g., heavily-exercising muscle cells or fermenting yeasts).  Glycolysis takes place within the cytosol of the cell.

12. GLYCOLYSIS  EMP is the initial process of most glucose metabolism, and it serves 3 principal functions: 1. Generation of high-energy molecules (ATP and NADH) as cellular energy sources as part of aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration 2. Production of pyruvate molecules for the Kreb’s cycle as part of aerobic respiration. 3. Production of a variety of six- and three-carbon intermediate compounds, which may be removed at various steps in the process for other cellular purposes.

13. GLYCOLYSIS  Glycolysis is the sequence of reactions that converts one glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules with the concomitant production of a relatively small amount of ATPs.  The most common and well-known type of glycolysis is the Embden-Meyerhof pathway

14. GLYCOLYSIS Preparatory phase (INVESTMENT PHASE) The first five steps are regarded as the preparatory (or investment) phase since they consume energy to convert the glucose into two three-carbon sugar phosphates (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate).

15. Preparatory Phase (EMP)  FIRST STEP The first step in glycolysis is phosphorylation of glucose by a family of enzymes called hexokinase to form glucose-6-phosphate (G6P). This reaction consumes one ATP molecule Phosphorylation of glucose blocks the glucose from leaking out - the cell lacks transporters for G6P.

16. Preparatory Phase (EMP) glucose G6P hexokinase ATP ADP

17. Preparatory Phase (EMP)  SECOND STEP G6P is then rearranged into fructose-6- phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase. The change in structure is an isomerization reaction. Fructose can also enter the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation at this point. This reaction is freely reversible under normal cell conditions.

18. Preparatory Phase (EMP) G6PF6P ISOMERASE

19. Preparatory Phase (EMP)  THIRD STEP This step spends another ATP molecule The reaction is now irreversible, and the energy supplied destabilizes the molecule. Because the reaction catalyzed by phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1) is energetically very favorable, it is essentially irreversible, and a different pathway must be used to do the reverse conversion during gluconeogenesis.

20. Preparatory Phase (EMP) F6P F-1,6-BP PFK-1 ATP ADP

21. Preparatory Phase (EMP)  FOURTH STEP Destabilizing fructose-1,6-biphosphate allows the hexose ring to be split into two triose sugars, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP), a ketone, and glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate (G3P), an aldehyde. This split reaction is mediated by an enzyme lyase, fructose biphosphate aldolase

22. G3P DHAP FBP Aldolase

23. Preparatory Phase (EMP)  The enzyme Triosephosphate isomerase rapidly interconverts DHAP with G3P that proceeds further into glycolysis. This is advantageous, as it directs DHAP down the same pathway as G3P, simplifying regulation.

25. Preparatory Phase (EMP) REVIEW! Starting molecule: GLUCOSE Product: DHAP and G3P (2 triose molecules) Energy spent: 2 ATP molecules

26. GLYCOLYSIS Pay-off phase (REAPING PHASE) This 2nd half of glycolysis pathway is known as the pay-off phase, characterised by a net gain of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH. Since glucose leads to 2 triose sugars (G3P and DHAP) in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay-off phase occurs twice (2x) per 1 glucose molecule.

27. Pay-off Phase (EMP)  FIRST STEP The triose sugars (2 G3P molecules) are dehydrogenated and inorganic phosphate is added to them, forming 1,3- biphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG) The hydrogen is used to reduce two molecules of NAD +, a hydrogen carrier, to give two NADH + H +. The enzyme used here is glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase

28. Pay-off Phase (EMP) G3P 1,3-BPG G3PDH NAD+ + Pi NADH + H+

29. Pay-off Phase (EMP)  SECOND STEP This step is the enzymatic transfer of a one phosphate group from 1,3-BPG to ADP by phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK), forming ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG). During this step, 2 new ATPs are formed (equal to the 2 ATPs consumed in the preparatory phase) This step requires ADP; thus, when the cell has plenty of ATP (and little ADP), this reaction does not occur.

30. Pay-off Phase (EMP) 1,3-BPG 3PG PGK ADPATP

31. Pay-off Phase (EMP) 3PG2PG  THIRD STEP In this reaction, the enzyme Phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM) mediates in the formation of 2- phosphoglycerate (2PG) PGM

32. Pay-off Phase (EMP) 2PGPEP  FOUTH STEP In this reaction, the enzyme Enolase, a type of lyase, then forms phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) from 2PG. ENOLASE

33. Pay-off Phase (EMP) PEP Pyruvate  LAST (5 TH ) STEP  A substrate-level phosphorylation forms a pyruvate and a molecule of ATP by means of the enzyme pyruvate kinase (PK). PK ADPATP

35. Pay-off Phase (EMP) REVIEW! Starting molecule: Two Glyceraldehyde-3-P (G3P) molecules Products: 2 Pyruvate molecules 4 ATP molecules 2 NADH molecules Energy spent: 2 ATP molecules (Prep phase) Net ATP gained: 2 ATPs per 1 glucose molecule

36. GLYCOLYSIS  The products of EMP all have important cellular uses: ATP provides an energy source for many cellular functions. NADH + H + provides reducing power for other metabolic pathways or further ATP synthesis. Pyruvate is used in the citric acid cycle in aerobic respiration to produce more ATP, or is converted to other small carbon molecules in anaerobic respiration.