1. PSY 338: Motivation Chapter 8:
Cognitive Motivation: Expectancy-Value Approaches

2. Early philosophers provided cognitive explanations
Plato argued that we perceive to be right based on our ideas of what is right
He felt that we are motivated to maximize virtue which we determine by our thoughts
Plato
(424/423–348/347 BCE)

3. Tolman’s Purposive Behavior
Argued for a holistic study of behavior
Molar Behavior: Studying behavior as a whole rather than component parts
Edward Tolman
( )

4. Characteristics of Molar Behavior
Tolman (1932)
Behavior directed toward or away from some specific goal:
Persistent - continue until the goal is obtained
Consistent pattern of responses - not random
Selective - shortest / easiest path

5. Purpose & Cognition Tolman (1932)
The three characteristics of molar behavior imply that an organism has some knowledge about the goals towards which its behavior is leading
Purposive - observed not inferred;
Objectively defined by the behaviors observed
Learned vs. Performed - learning occurs in absence of behavioral change; motivation activates learning/translates to performance
We expect that a particular behavior in the future will lead to our goal
Example: Author’s “cognitive cat”

6. Purpose & Cognition Tolman (1932)
Cognitive Map - where goals may be found
He did not believe in stimulus response approaches
No chain of responses needed
Organism has a general sense about where reinforcement can be found; not a series of responses to reach a goal
The concept of a cognitive map suggests that organisms acquire expectations both that behavior will be rewarded and that the reward can be found in specific locations
Tolman argued that place learning is the more usual way in which animals learn

7. Purpose & Cognition The Great Debate: Behaviorists vs. Cognitivists
Learning takes place in the mind, not in behavior
The formation of mental representations of the elements of a task and the discovery of how these elements are related
Forming a cognitive map of the environment (Tolman, 1948)
Learning the correct place
Behaviorists
Learning involves the formation of associations between specific actions and specific events (stimuli) in the environment (Hull, 1949)
Learning the correct response

8. Purpose & Cognition
In one experiment, after rats received the reward on their right, the researchers simply rotated a maze
Tolman’s theory (place) would predict that the rats would check their cognitive map for the location of the maze within the room, and make a left turn to compensate for the change in starting position
Hull’s theory (response) would predict rats would make a right turn as they have been trained to do
Maze Arrangements for Testing
Place vs. Response Learning

9. Purpose & Cognition Tolman, Ritchie, & Kalish (1946) Procedures
Lab rats conditioned to getting the reward on their right, then researchers rotated the maze
Used maze with flat alleys, no walls, and elevated
Distinctive features in the room were clearly seen from the maze
Results
Rats made left turn
Interpretation
Specific environmental cues encourage cognitive learning; responses or cognitive maps may be learned; rats and people are flexible in their use of whatever cues are available

10. Force Field Theory Lewin (1936)
Another molar approach to understanding motivation
Homeostatic cognitive model of motivation
Dynamic approach that emphasized that forces acting to initiate behavior are constantly changing
He posits that several forces are simultaneously exerting their influence on us

11. Force Field Theory Lewin (1936)
Reaction of an object is the result of all forces acting on that object w/in a field
Tension: Need to reach homeostasis

12. Force Field Theory Lewin’s (1938)
Theory is based on Gestaltist notions and the idea that behavior is a function of both the person and the environment [B = f ( P, E)]
Life space = a person’s psychological reality that contains different regions of the person and his perceptions of the environment
Motivation occurs because regions associated with particular needs/goals are in tension until the goals are achieved.
Valence or relative attractiveness influence the level of tension and thus the level of motivation to eliminate the tension
Lewin’s notions of B=f(P,E) and of valence and potency are important to current expectancy-based motivation theories

13. The Zeigarnik Effect
State of tension will continue to motivate until behavior associated with task is completed
Easier to remember unfinished tasks than completed ones

14. Expectancy-Value Theory
Combination of individual needs and value of goals available in environment
Depends on:
1. Value of goal for individual
2. Expectancy of obtaining goal

15. Expectancy-Value Theory
Motivation as a joint function of the value people place on an outcome, and the extent to which they believe they can attain it
i.e., we are driven to attain goals that matter a lot to us but also one’s we believe we can accomplish

16. Expectancy-Value Theory
Expectancy-Value theory says that motivation is governed by two things:
The expectancy of success
The value of that success
Values of the goal interpreted in terms of costs in pursuing the goal

17. Expectancy-Value Theory
Begins with the idea that everyone has a need for achievement, but in different amounts
People are motivated to engage in an activity to the extent that they expect to succeed times the value they place on the success
Combination of task value and expectation for success
Both high: persistence, great effort expended, motivation for learning
Both low: refuse to participate, no motivation to learn

18. Expectancy-Value Theory
Task value
Attainment value
Intrinsic or interest value
Utility value
Authentic tasks

19. Expectancy-Value Theory
Cost
Cost refers to what a person gives up to engage in a task. For example, if Jennifer studies for her French test, she has less time to participate in other activities.
If the cost is too high, a person may avoid the activity.

20. Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory incorporates:
Internal Factors: expectancies & values
External Factors: social situations
Rotter (1954)
Four Basic Concepts:
1. Reinforcement Value (Desirability) – Relative
2. Subjective Estimates (Expectations)
3. Situational Factors (Based on prior experience)
4. Generalized Expectations (Prior experience)
Julian Rotter
( )

21. Social Learning Theory
Locus of Control
Internal / External control of reinforcement
Click on picture 
Rotter (1954)

22. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Reciprocal Determinism: person, environment, and behavior all interact
Incentives: Direct, vicarious, & self-reinforcing
Most learning occurs through observing others (modeling) and consequences to them (vicarious reinforcement)
Albert Bandura
88 years old

23. Expectancy-Value Theory and the Need for Achievement
Murray (1938)
Needs
The recurrent concern for a goal state and believed that a need consists of two components
Directional
Energizing drive
20 manifest needs
Achievement, autonomy, dominance, understanding, nurturant
Other needs were latent but could also lead to achievement motivation
Henry Murray
( )

24. Expectancy-Value Theory and the Need for Achievement
Murray(1938)
Defined achievement motivation as:
A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideas, for control over things or people, and for rapidly attaining a high standard of excellence
The desire to do things well and feel pleasure in overcoming obstacles

25. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
McClelland & Atkinson (1948)
Felt that important motives of an individual could be assessed by analyzing stories developed from mostly ambiguous pictures
Certain themes could be determined through content analysis

26. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
McClelland & Atkinson (1948)
Procedure
Arranged to have men on a submarine base go varying lengths of time without food
Deception used
Asked to looked at slides of various scenes that might suggest food seeking or eating and then write stories about the picture
Results
Length of food deprivation correlated to the amount of food imagery found in their stories
Interpretation
Motive states were reflected in the interpretations of the TAT pictures

27. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell (1953)
TAT consists of a series of ambiguous figures
Participants task is to make up a story from the picture
Reliability and validity questionable
Remains popular and one of the most frequently used test by clinical psychologists
Test measures latent motivations
Apperception is the process of projecting imagery onto an outside stimulus, such as a picture
Typical TAT pictures testing
achievement motivation in children
Typical TAT procedure

28. Motive for Success, Probability of Success, & Incentive Value
Atkinson & Birch (1978)
Achievement motivation is an expectancy-value theory because the tendency to engage in a particular activity is related to the strength of the expectation (belief) that the behavior will lead to a particular consequence
Value of consequence is important
Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations seem to be involved in approach-avoidance of an achievement-related situation

29. Motive for Success, Probability of Success, & Incentive Value
Four variables involved in the tendency to approach or avoid achievement situations:
Motive for success
Stable characteristic; learned early in life as result of parental rewards being associated with achievement-related cues; positive emotion consequences
Motive to avoid failure
Stable characteristic; learned early in life as result of parental rewards being associated with achievement-related cues; negative emotion consequences
Probability of success
Varies from situation to situation; a person’s subjective estimate of success
Incentive value
Varies from situation to situation; some goals are worth more than others

30. Research on Achievement Motivation
Atkinson & Litwin (1960)
Procedure
Assessed college males on motive for success; motive to avoid failure
Ring-toss game; they could select distance to the peg anywhere form 1-15 feet
Results
Those scoring higher in motive for success than motive to avoid failure selected intermediate distances

31. Research on Achievement Motivation
Isaacson (1964)
Found that college males scoring higher in motive for success than motive to avoid failure selected majors of intermediate difficulty more often than those scoring higher in motive to avoid failure than motive for success
Results supported Atkinson & Litman (1960)
Interpretation of these research studies on achievement motivation:
Those high in motive for success want take part in challenging tasks that they are capable of being successful at

32. Criticisms of Need-Achievement Theory
Failures to replicate some important findings; preference for intermediate tasks is one
Textbook cites three studies on page 250 that call this finding into question
Dual constructs for motive for success and motive to avoid failure make interpreting research on achievement motivation difficult
Difficult to differentiate the two; much overlap
Some researchers question if the need for achievement is motivational
Entwisle (1972) found low correlation between grades of high school students and their need-achievement scores
Achievement motivation is multidimensional and this makes it difficult to accurately determine

33. Revisions to Need-Achievement Theory
Dweck & Elliott (1983)
Felt we were motivated by two specific goals
Learning Goals
Someone motivated by this type of goal will seek to master a task for the sake of increasing personal competence
Performance Goals
How one’s competence compares to others is the primary motivator for these type of goals

34. Attitudes, behaviors, and expectancy-Value
Do attitudes correlate with behavior?
Bickman (1972)
Procedure
Interviewed people who were walking in front of either a college library or a storefront nearby the college
Asked them if they thought it was everyone’s responsibility to pick up litter or just those who get paid to do so
After interview, participants would have to walk around or step over trash as it was in their path
Results
94% said its everyone’s responsibility to pickup trash; yet only 1.4% actually did pick it up
Interpretation
Attitudes do not predict behaviors very well
Other factors may be interacting

35. The Theory of Planned Behavior
Ajzen (1991)
Actual Behavioral Control
Intentions and resources to perform the behavior; time and ability
Perceived Behavioral Control
One’s level of belief that they can successfully perform a given behavior
Can be accurate perception; can be inaccurate

36. The Theory of Planned Behavior: Research & Applications
Large body of literature on the subject; most focus on predicting behaviors related to health and safety
The Theory of Planned Behavior increases accuracy in predicting diverse behaviors:
Texting while driving
Gambling
Exercising
Academic cheating
Using public transportation
Engaging in safe sex, drinking alcohol, taking medication, etc.

37. Social Loafing
A group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks in which contributions are pooled
Individuals are slacking off based on the expectancy that the rest of the group will work hard enough to accomplish a valued goal

38. Social Loafing Ringelman’s (1880’s) experiments
Individual output declined on pooled tasks in all his experiments
Units pulled in rope-tugging task:
1 person 100
2 people 186
3 people 255
8 people 392
Force exerted in a rope-tugging task:
1 person 184 lbs.
7 people averaged 143 lbs.

39. Social Loafing Ingham et al (1974) Procedure Blind folded rope pulling
DV: Effort
IV: Thought people were behind them or not
Results
Participants pulled 18% harder when they thought they were alone
Interpretation
Decreased motivation due to an increase in group size

40. Expectancy Value Theory & Social Loafing
Karau & Williams (1993)
Collective Effort Model
Individuals will be motivated to perform well in tasks if they expect their effort will lead to obtaining a valued goal
Three prerequisites for maximal individual effort to occur in a collective effort
One must believe that individual effort will lead to improved group performance
One must expect that the group’s performance will lead to a valued group outcome
The group outcome must result in a valued individual outcome

41. Predicting & Reducing Social Loafing
Karau & Williams (1993)
Performed meta-analysis of 78 studies on social loafing to determine which variables were most involved in this phenomenon
Social loafing can be reduced if:
If participants think that individual contributions are identifiable
If participants think that their contributions are unique and necessary for group success
If participants value the task they are performing as being meaningful
Less loafing in small groups
Less loafing on simple tasks

42. Alternatives to the Expectancy-Value Approach to Social Loafing
Latane, Williams, & Harkins (1979)
Social Impact Theory
This theory posits that performance in a group decreases because the pressure to work is dispersed among the members of the group
The larger the group, the less pressure each member of the group feels to perform

43. Credits Some slides prepared with the help of the following websites:
ftp://ftp.amberton.edu/_...01/.../HBD4741%20Lecture% p...