1. Chapter 6 Problem Solving and Algorithm Design

2. 2 Problem Solving Problem solving The act of finding a solution to a perplexing, distressing, vexing, or unsettled question

3. 3 Problem Solving Book: How to Solve It: A New Aspect of Mathematical Method by George Polya, 1945 "How to solve it list" written within the context of mathematical problems But list is quite general We can use it to solve computer related problems!

4. 4 Problem Solving How do you solve problems? Understand the problem Devise a plan Carry out the plan Look back

5. 5 Strategies Ask questions! –What do I know about the problem? –What is the information that I have to process in order the find the solution? –What does the solution look like? –What sort of special cases exist? –How will I recognize that I have found the solution?

6. 6 Strategies Ask questions! Never reinvent the wheel! Similar problems come up again and again in different guises A good programmer recognizes a task or subtask that has been solved before and plugs in the solution Can you think of two similar problems?

7. 7 Strategies Divide and Conquer! Break up a large problem into smaller units and solve each smaller problem –Applies the concept of abstraction –The divide-and-conquer approach can be applied over and over again until each subtask is manageable

8. 8 Algorithms Algorithm A set of unambiguous instructions for solving a problem or sub-problem in a finite amount of time using a finite amount of data Why must instructions be unambiguous? Why must time and data be finite?

9. 9 Computer Problem-Solving Analysis and Specification Phase Analyze Specification Algorithm Development Phase Develop algorithm Test algorithm Implementation Phase Code algorithm Test algorithm Maintenance Phase Use Maintain

10. 10 Phase Interactions

11. 11 Following an Algorithm Figure 6.4 A recipe for Hollandaise sauce

12. 12 Following an Algorithm Algorithm for preparing a Hollandaise sauce If concerned about cholesterol Put butter substitute in a pot Else Put butter in a pot Turn on burner Put pot on the burner While (NOT bubbling) Leave pot on the burner Put other ingredients in the blender Turn on blender While (more in pot) Pour contents into lender in slow steam Turn off blender

13. 13 Developing an Algorithm Two methodologies used to develop computer solutions to a problem –Top-down design focuses on the tasks to be done –Object-oriented design focuses on the data involved in the solution But first, let's look at a way to express algorithms: pseudocode

14. 14 Pseudocode A way of expressing algorithms that uses a mixture of English phrases and indention to make the steps in the solution explicit There are no grammar rules in pseudocode Pseudocode is not case sensitive

15. 15 Following Pseudocode What is 93 in base 8? 93/8 gives 11 remainder 5 11/8 gives 1 remainder 3 1/ 8 gives 0 remainder 1 answer 1 3 5 While ( the quotient is not zero ) Divide the decimal number by the new base Make the remainder the next digit to the left in the answer Replace the original decimal number with Algorithm to Convert base-10 number to other bases

16. 16 Following Pseudocode Easier way to organize solution

17. 17 Pseudocode for Complete Computer Solution Write "Enter the new base" Read newBase Write "Enter the number to be converted" Read decimalNumber Set quotient to 1 While (quotient is not zero) Set quotient to decimalNumber DIV newBase Set remainder to decimalNumber REM newBase Make the remainder the next digit to the left in the answer Set decimalNumber to quotient Write "The answer is " Write answer DIV – Operator that returns the decimal quotient REM – Operator that returns the decimal remainder

18. 18 Pseudocode Functionality Variables Names of places to store values quotient, decimalNumber, newBase Assignment Storing the value of an expression into a variable Set quotient to 64 quotient <-- 64 quotient <-- 6 * 10 + 4

19. 19 Pseudocode Functionality Output Printing a value on an output device Write, Print Input Getting values from the outside word and storing them into variables Get, Read

20. 20 Pseudocode Functionality Repetition Repeating a series of statements Set count to 1 While ( count < 10) Write "Enter an integer number" Read aNumber Write "You entered " + aNumber Set count to count + 1 How many values were read?

21. 21 Pseudocode Functionality Selection Making a choice to execute or skip a statement (or group of statements) Read number If (number < 0) Write number + " is less than zero." or Write "Enter a positive number." Read number If (number < 0) Write number + " is less than zero." Write "You didn't follow instructions."

22. 22 Pseudocode Functionality Selection Choose to execute one statement (or group of statements) or another statement (or group of statements) If ( age < 12 ) Write "Pay children's rate" Write "You get a free box of popcorn" else If ( age < 65 ) Write "Pay regular rate" else Write "Pay senior citizens rate"

23. 23 Pseudocode Example Write "How many pairs of values are to be entered?" Read numberOfPairs Set numberRead to 0 While (numberRead < numberOfPairs) Write "Enter two values separated by a blank; press return" Read number1 Read number2 If (number1 < number2) Print number1 + " " + number2 Else Print number2 + " " number1 Increment numberRead

24. 24 Walk Through DataFill in values during each iteration 3numberReadnumber1number2 55 70 2 1 33 numberOfPairs What is the output?

25. 25 Top-Down Design Problem-solving technique in which the problem is divided into subproblems; the process is applied to each subproblem Modules Self-contained collection of steps, that solve a problem or subproblem Abstract Step An algorithmic step containing unspecified details Concrete Step An algorithm step in which all details are specified

26. 26 Top-Down Design Process continues for as many levels as it takes to make every step concrete Name of (sub)problem at one level becomes a module at next lower level Figure 6.5 An example of top-down design

27. 27 A General Example Planning a large party Figure 6.6 Subdividing the party planning

28. 28 A Computer Example Problem Create a list that includes each person’s name, telephone number, and e-mail address –This list should then be printed in alphabetical order –The names to be included in the list are on scraps of paper and business cards

29. 29 A Computer Example MainLevel 0 Enter names and numbers into list Put list into alphabetical order Print list Enter names and numbers into listLevel 1 While ( more names) Enter name Enter telephone number Enter email address Insert information into list Which steps are abstract? Which steps are concrete? What is missing?

30. 30 A Computer Example Enter names and numbers into list (revised)Level 1 Set moreNames to true While (moreNames) Prompt for and enter name Prompt for and enter telephone number Prompt for and enter email address Insert information into list Write "Enter a 1 to continue or a 0 to stop." Read response If (response = 0) Set moreNames to false

31. 31 A Computer Example Prompt for and enter nameLevel 2 Write "Enter last name; press return." Read lastName Write "Enter first name; press return." Read firstName Prompt for and enter telephone numberLevel 2 Write "Enter area code and 7-digit number; press return." Read telephoneNumber Prompt for and enter email addressLevel 2 Write "Enter email address; press return." Read emailAddress

32. 32 A Computer Example Put list into alphabetical order Print the listLevel 1 Write "The list of names, telephone numbers, and email addresses follows:" Get first item from the list While (more items) Write item's firstName + " " + lastName Write item's telephoneNumber Write item's emailAddress Write a blank line Get next item from the list

33. 33 A Computer Example Note: Insert information is within the loop

34. 34 Testing the Algorithm Important distinction Mathematics We tests the answer Programs We test the process

35. 35 Testing the Algorithm Desk checking Working through a design at a desk with a pencil and paper Walk-through Manual simulation of the design by team members, taking sample data values and simulating the design using the sample data Inspection One person (not the designer) reads the design (handed out in advance) line by line while the others point out errors

36. 36 Object-Oriented Design Object-oriented Design A problem-solving methodology that produces a solution to a problem in terms of self-contained entities called objects Object A thing or entity that makes sense within the context of the problem For example, a student, a car, time, date

37. 37 Object-Oriented Design World View of OOD Problems are solved by –isolating the objects in a problem, –determining their properties and actions (responsibilities), and –letting the objects collaborate to solve a problem

38. 38 Object-Oriented Design An analogy: You and your friend fix dinner Objects: you, friend, dinner Class: you and friend are people People have name, eye color, … People can shop, cook, … Instance of a class: you and friend are instances of class People, you each have your own name and eye color, you each can shop and cook You collaborate to fix dinner

39. 39 Object-Oriented Design Class (or object class) A description of a group of similar objects Object (instance of a class) A concrete example of the class Classes contain fields that represent the properties (name, eye color) and behaviors (responsibilities) (shop, cook) of the class Method A named algorithm that defines behavior (shop, cook)

40. 40 Object-Oriented Design Top-Down Design decomposes problems into tasks Object-Oriented Design decomposes problems into collaborating objects Yes, but how?

41. 41 Object-Oriented Design Steps –isolate the real-world objects in the problem –abstract the objects with like properties into groups (classes) –determine the responsibilities of the group in interacting with other groups

42. 42 Object-Oriented Design Think of design as a mapping from real world objects to classes of objects birth date marriage date dog's birth date Date class Objects Classes of objects

43. 43 Object-Oriented Design Program World simulates these groups class Date dogBirthdate birthdate marriageDate Description Instances

44. 44 Object-Oriented Design Date's Actions in real world ? We call an object's interactions with other objects its responsibilities Create itself Know the state of its fields Compare itself to another date Return a date #days hence

45. 45 Object-Oriented Design Responsibilities become methods in the Program World class Date getMonth getDay getYear dogBirthdate birthdate marriageDate

46. 46 Object-Oriented Design Methodology Four stages to the decomposition process –Brainstorming to locate possible classes –Filtering the classes to find duplicates or remove unnecessary ones –Scenarios are tried to be sure we understand collaborations –Responsibility algorithms are designed for all actions that classes must exhibit

47. 47 CRC Cards CRC cards are a notational device to record information about a class, what is must do and with whom it must collaborate

48. 48 Brainstorming A group problem-solving technique that involves the spontaneous contribution of ideas from all members of the group –All ideas are potential good ideas –Think fast and furiously first, and ponder later –A little humor can be a powerful force Brainstorming is designed to produce a list of candidate classes

49. 49 Filtering Determine which are the core classes in the problem solution There may be two classes in the list that have many common attributes and behaviors There may be classes that really don’t belong in the problem solution

50. 50 Scenarios Assign responsibilities to each class There are two types of responsibilities –What a class must know about itself (knowledge responsibilities) –What a class must be able to do (behavior responsibilities)

51. 51 Scenarios Encapsulation The bundling of data and actions in such a way that the logical properties of the data and actions are separated from the implementation details Each class encapsulates its data but shares their values through knowledge responsibilities

52. 52 Responsibility Algorithms The algorithms must be written for the responsibilities –Knowledge responsibilities usually just return the contents of one of an object’s variables –Action responsibilities are a little more complicated, often involving calculations

53. 53 Computer Example Let’s repeat the problem-solving process for creating an address list Brainstorming and filtering –Circling the nouns and underlining the verbs is a good way to begin

54. Computer Example First pass at a list of classes list name telephone number email address list order names list scraps paper cards Filtered List list, name, telephone number email address

55. 55 CRC Cards

56. 56 CRC Cards

57. 57 CRC Cards How is this class different from Name and Person?

58. 58 Responsibility Algorithms Person Class Initialize name.initialize() Write "Enter phone number; press return." Get telephone number Write "Enter email address; press return." Get email address Print name.print() Write "Telephone number: " + telephoneNumber Write "Email address: " + emailAddress Tells name to initialize itself Tells name to print itself

59. 59 Responsibility Algorithms Name Class Initialize "Enter the first name; press return." Read firstName "Enter the last name; press return." Read lastName Print Print "First name: " + firstName Print "Last name: " + lastName

60. 60 Important Threads Information Hiding The practice of hiding the details of a module with the goal of controlling access to it Abstraction A model of a complex system that includes only the details essential to the viewer Information Hiding and Abstraction are two sides of the same coin

61. 61 Important Threads Data abstraction Separation of the logical view of data from their implementation (e.g. Bank statement) Procedural abstraction Separation of the logical view of actions from their implementation (e.g. brakes of car to stop) Control abstraction Separation of the logical view of a control structure from its implementation (e.g. While and If )

62. 62 Important Threads Abstraction is the most powerful tool people have for managing complexity!

63. 63 Important Threads Identifiers Names given to data and actions, by which – we access the data and Read firstName, Set count to count + 1 –execute the actions name.initialize(), name.print() Giving names to data and actions is a form of abstraction

64. 64 Important Threads Programming language A set of grammar rules, symbols, and special words used to construct a program Program A sequence of instructions written to perform a specified task Syntax The formal grammar rules governing the construction of valid instructions Semantics The rules that give meaning to the instructions