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Key Skills/Competencies
Intrapersonal Skills Interpersonal Skills Leadership Skills Business Skills
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Examples of Leadership Skills involving Writing & Presenting
Motivating subordinates Performance feedback Goal setting Building positive relationships with each team member Developing & communicating vision Persuasion Using charisma to project vision Persistence Examples of motivating others are setting goals during performance feedback sessions Part of developing and communicating vision is to setting strategic goals Being persistent is to develop behaviors that are part of conscientiousness
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Examples of Business Skills involving Writing & Presenting
Negotiation E.g., Salary packages, Business contracts Decision Making & Problem Solving Budgeting, Cutting costs, Writing reports Planning Forecasting costs and revenues Business strategy Profitability, good customer service
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Why Write & Present? Prepare for Managerial Job Research about mangers
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FIRE=Finance, Insurance, Real Estate
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FIRE=Finance, Insurance, Real Estate
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FIRE=Finance, Insurance, Real Estate
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Amount of Managers’ Time Spent Writing
15-20% of a manager’s time 30% of professional & technical person’s time Accountant Partners Study 80% partners write a memo/day 93% write letter to client/week 67% write report/notes to financial statement Smeltzer & Thomas, 94
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Writing is required in C24 to
Prepare for Managerial Job Managers & professionals write a lot Get a managerial job Be promoted once you have a managerial job
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Proposals & Persuasive Letters Reports
What do managers write? Memos, s Proposals & Persuasive Letters Reports Smeltzer & Thomas, 94
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Tasks involved in different types
of managerial writing Memos/ s Describing Persuasive Letters & Proposals Arguing Reports Defining & Analyzing
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One Loan Officer’s Writing Task
Evaluate loan application from a multi-national that Owned farms, food processing & manufacturing plants etc. Defaulted on payment of earlier loan for millions of dollars but submitted a request for extension on loan & an additional loan Bank would consider additional loan to enhance probability of recovering initial loan from multi-national While writing, loan officer had to Assess performance w/initial loan Evaluate current viability Assess productivity, markets, current financial structure, management, etc. Predict potential for recovery & continued viability Convince superiors recommendation was valid Success of recommendation determined officer’s future in bank (Hillocks, 95)
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Summary of Questions to address
What is the phenomenon? How is it different & similar to another phenomenon? When is it exhibited? Why? When is it not exhibited? Why? What explains its exhibition vs. non exhibition? What kinds of information will help you “know more” about it?
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Phenomenon = 2 variable hypothesis
Examples of hypotheses Is X related to Y? (e.g., extraversion & NV skills) Examples of non-hypotheses Topic/Question: what is X? Examples of counter hypothesis X is not related to Y (e.g., group membership is not related to performance) Bad counter-hypothesis Z is related to Y (e.g., Ability is related to performance)
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How is the phenomenon you chose to write on different & similar to another phenomenon?
Define variables
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Steps to follow when defining
Define concept by listing its features Give examples of concept Differentiate concept from confusing concept Give examples of confusing concept that can be mistaken for examples of the concept to be explained Compare features of the concept to be explained and the confusing concept
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Listing features & Giving Examples of Concept
Features of non-verbal communication skills (definition) Ability to perceive & interpret emotions accurately Convey emotional information to other Examples of non verbal communication ability to decode/encode tone of voice eye contact, facial expressions
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Differentiate concept from counter-concept when defining
Choose appropriate counter concept E.g., comparing non-verbal skills with verbal skills is not as explanatory as comparing non verbal skills with interpersonal skills E.g., Comparing introversion with extraversion is not effective in explaining what extraversion is than comparing extraversion with talkativeness or extraversion with agreeableness
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Comparing concept with counter concept with features
Non-Verbal Skills Interpersonal Skills Convey emotional information with other Establish relationship with other Express & interpret emotions Control emotional expression Lower order skills Higher order Potential chart to use in oral presentation
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Common errors in defining
Not using good sources for definitions B23/B29/C24 Texts are C-level sources Not defining BOTH your variables Some do only one….assuming the other is too simple! E.g., gender Care in distinguishing features of concept vs. causes/effects of concept E.g., What is happiness vs. What are its effects? Listing features is not the same as comparing
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Organizational Commitment
Listing vs. Comparing Job Stress Job Turnover -physically and mentally distressed -employee has intentions to quit -demands of job exceed employee’s perceived capacity -has negative view of job or organization Good Comparison Chart…. Job Involvement Organizational Commitment -targeted towards individual-based goals -targeted towards reaching organizational goals -job is defined in terms of individual’s unique role in the organization -job is defined in terms of the whole organization
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Additional tips in defining variables
Use definitions used by sources giving you evidence for/against hypothesis Helps in avoiding repetition in description of evidence Could help in explaining inconsistencies in the evidence But beware of differences in definitions & choose wisely based on your hypothesis
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Agenda Overview What is the phenomenon?
How is it different & similar to another phenomenon? When is it exhibited? Why? When is it not exhibited? Why? What explains its exhibition vs. non exhibition? What kinds of information will help you “know more” about it? 25 25
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Requirements of next 4 questions
When is phenomenon exhibited? Describe relevant & specific empirical evidence from 1 source supporting hypothesis Why is phenomenon exhibited? Explain reason for hypothesis When is phenomenon not exhibited? Describe relevant & specific empirical evidence from 1 good sources not supporting hypothesis Why is phenomenon not exhibited? Explain reason for counter-hypothesis
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Describing vs. explaining
Describing = What occurred? E.g., how is your hypothesis true in the particular study Explaining =Why it occurred? E.g., why is your hypothesis logically sound?
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Describing empirical evidence Specific & Difficult Goal
Unskilled, uneducated loggers paid at piece rate were randomly assigned to one of two groups Type of Goal Setting Specific & Difficult Goal “Do your best” Goal Performance High Low Potential chart to use in oral presentation
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Explanation for why specific & difficult goals result in better performance than ‘do your best’ goals? Do your best goals No external standard for Performance Performance defined individually Low Performance Specific & Difficult Goals Clear performance standard Hi Performance Potential chart to use in oral presentation
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Describing with a diagram
Performance Goal Specificity & Difficulty Potential chart to use in oral presentation
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Explaining with a diagram
Do your best goals No external standard for Performance Performance defined individually Low Performance Specific & Difficult Goals Clear performance standard Hi Performance Potential chart to use in oral presentation
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Example good description of single study (Student draft, Spring 2006)
Surveyed 369 mgrs in 83 business units by using Spreitzer’s 12-item questionnaire for empowerment & Rusbult’s 6-items questionnaire for job satisfaction [and found].. a significant positive correlation [.72] between psychological empowerment and job satisfaction
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What evidence supports or does not support Hypothesis
Give specific, relevant & sufficient detail about how sources support your hypothesis & counter hypothesis Sample size Measures used Size/direction of correlation OR Difference in mean Significance level Establish relevance of detail while providing it
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To develop explanation, convert hypothesis into question & back it up
+ + NV Skills Social experiences Extraversion Why is extraversion related to non verbal skills? bec. extraverts have more social experiences After you answer the question, find a source to back up answer
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Additional Tips for good explanations
Use additional articles to explain findings if sources w/data supporting hypothesis don’t explain findings well
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Why are the variables NOT related
Identify the correct counter hypothesis E.g., Extraversion is not related to Non-verbal skills E.g., Group membership is not related to performance
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Reason for why variables are not related
+ + NV Skills Social experiences Extraversion + Agreeableness E is not related to NVS because agreeable extraverts have more social experiences whereas disagreeable extraverts have fewer social experiences
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Detailed explanation for why variables are not related
+ Agreeable Extraverts + NV Skills Social experiences - Disagreeable Extraverts - NV Skills Social experiences E is not related to NVS because agreeable extraverts have more social experiences whereas disagreeable extraverts have fewer social experiences
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Examples of incorrect counter hypotheses
No casual effect! + NV Skills Extraversion General Ability
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Steps to follow to explain why hypothesis is not supported
Identify reason for hypothesis Identify limitations of reasoning for hypothesis Explain the reason for the counter hypothesis & how that reason is supported with empirical evidence
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1st step to explaining counter evidence
e.g., Participation does not lead more difficult goals being set Identifying reason for hypothesis Participation results in more difficult goals being set because supervisors do not know the abilities of subordinates
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The original Hypothesis
Type of Goal No Participation Easy Participation Difficult
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Assumption of the original Hypothesis
Subordinate knows own Ability Participation Difficult goals = Supervisor does not know Subordinate Ability No Participation = Easy goals
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2nd step to explain counter evidence
Demonstrate limitations of reason behind pro hypothesis Assumes that supervisors do not know the abilities of the subordinates and so assign easy goals
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3rd step to explain counter evidence
Explain the reason for the counter hypothesis & how that reason is supported with empirical evidence When supervisors know the abilities of subordinates, participation does not result in more difficult goals as shown in results of study x....
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Challenging assumption of original Hypothesis
Supervisor does not know Subordinate Ability Easy goals No Participation = Supervisor knows Subordinate Ability No Participation = Difficult goals
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Does Supervisor Know Subordinate Ability
Yes No No Participation Difficult Easy Participation
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Another example of explaining a counter hypothesis (esp in pres)
Pay does not lead to increased motivation Implicit theory: Pay reinforces behavior Assumptions Pay reinforces all behaviors New findings Pay does not reinforce behaviors that are intrinsically motivated
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Summary of how to explain & speaker allocation
Concept Hypothesis Counter-hypothesis Describe original hypo Discuss explanation of original hypo Identify counter evidence Show how new explanation explains counter & pro evidence Defines concept Gives examples, counter examples Identifies features of concept Explains why or how variables are related
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Additional Tips for good explanations
One well fleshed out explanation is better than 2 explanations of 1 phrase each!
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Examples of too many explanations of
hypotheses Career Advancement Gender Stereotypes Self Confidence
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What we covered so far...What’s next
√ What is the phenomenon? √ How is it different & similar to another phenomenon? √ When is it exhibited? Why? √ When is it not exhibited? Why? What explains its exhibition vs. non exhibition?
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Why is your hypothesis true in some studies but not in others?
E.g., Why is Extraversion related to Non verbal skills in study A but not in Study B? Identify similarities & differences in all studies & relate to variable within your hypothesis
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Differences in findings due to differences in measures
+ Extraversion In Total + NV Skills Social experiences - - Extraversion As Positive Affect NV Skills Social experiences
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Differences in findings due to differences in sample
+ Agreeable Extraverts + NV Skills Social experiences - Disagreeable Extraverts - NV Skills Social experiences
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Explaining differences in findings
E is related to NVS because of social experiences E is not related to NVS because Of differences in how extraversion was measured Extraverts in one study were more agreeable than those in the other study
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What we covered so far…what’s next
What is the phenomenon? How is it different & similar to another phenomenon? When is it exhibited? Why? When is it not exhibited? Why? What explains its exhibition vs. non exhibition? What kinds of information will help you “know more” about it? 57 57
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What kinds of tests will help you know more about your hypothesis?
Test reasons for why your hypothesis is true? OR Test reasons for why the hypothesis is not true? OR Test reasons for why the hypothesis is true in some situations but not in others?
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1st Type: Testing explanations for the hypothesis
+ + Extraversion Social experiences Non Verbal Skills Daily diary of number & kind of social experiences Parties attended Number of Club-memberships Identify how to measure the (inner) explanatory variables & how to establish their connection to (outer) variables in hypothesis
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Poor Example of Future Research
+ + NV Skills Social experiences Extraversion General Ability
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2nd Type: Tests reason for why hypothesis is not true
+ Agreeable Extraverts + NV Skills Social experiences - Disagreeable Extraverts - NV Skills Social experiences Agreeable extraverts have more social experiences whereas disagreeable extraverts have fewer social experiences 61
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3rd Type: Test reason for why hypothesis
is true in some situations but not in others + Extraversion In Total + NV Skills Social experiences - - Extraversion As Positive Affect NV Skills Social experiences When extraversion is measured/defined as frequency of positive affect, it is not related to Non verbal skills
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Additional Aspects of Oral Presentation Slides
Structural Aspects Focus of Presentation Speaker allocation Key Concept definition Pro-evidence Counter evidence Proposed study (repeat/4th person)
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Structural Aspects of Slides
Had a clear introductory & concluding component Are well structured & the logic of the organization is clear Have clear & accurate headings & subheadings
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Intro vs. Conclusion Examples Introduction Conclusion
Why goals improve performance Examples in Prof R’s behavior What makes goals more effective in improving performance Examples in Prof R’s class Examples of research studies Focus attention Promote use of knowledge Increase amt of time on task Increase amt of effort on task Commitment to goals Knowledge of how to attain goals Feedback on progress toward goals Specificity & difficulty of goals Situational constraints
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Structural Aspects of Slides
What’s next…. Structural Aspects of Slides Had a clear introductory & concluding component Are well structured & the logic of the organization is clear Have clear & accurate headings & subheadings
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Titles for entire presentation
Should reflect the question you will answer Can reflect the agenda E.g., What personality dimension predicts leadership skills? Titles of each slide Title should reflect the content of the slide Titles should tell you the connection to the previous slide– REFLECT LOGICAL ORGANIZATION
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Specific & Difficult Goal
Description of Logger Study Unskilled, uneducated loggers paid at piece rate were randomly assigned to one of two groups Type of Goal Setting Specific & Difficult Goal “Do your best” Goal Performance High Low Example Titles of Slides
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Explanation of Logger Study Results
Why do specific & difficult goals result in better performance than ‘do your best’ goals? Do your best goals No external standard for Performance Performance defined individually Low Performance Specific & Difficult Goals Clear performance standard Hi Performance
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How evidence supports the link
Expectations about information Limits Information Noticed Dangerous objects will appear 50% of time Dangerous Objects will appear 1% of time Error Rate 7% 30% Those who were told that dangerous objects in bags would appear 50% of the time had a lower error rate than those who were told they would only appear 1% of the time How evidence supports the link
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Titles vs. Headings Example titles of slides & headings
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Example of how goal improves performance
Goal=to effectively teach argumentation Focus attention on behaviors that will attain goal Assign dates in course timetable Promote use/discovery of knowledge needed to do task Do lit search for articles on how to teach argumentation Increase how hard one works on task Work harder on lecture & activities Lengthen time spent on task Spend more time on lecture & activities as date approaches, practice, audio record practice, make changes 72
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Titles vs. Headings vs. Subheadings
How are headings different from sub headings Examples What makes goals more effective in improving performance (headings) Commitment to goals (subheadings) Knowledge of how to attain goals Feedback on progress toward goals Specificity & difficulty of goals Situational constraints
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Additional Aspects of Paper
Implications Abstract Structure Title
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Implications for practice
(unique to paper) Forming evidence based generalizations based on Evidence for hypothesis, against hypothesis...etc for and against the hypothesis e.g., when to use subordinate participation in goal setting Explanations for the evidence
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Abstract: Summarizing
Comprehensive, short summary of paper Shorter than 1 page Hypothesis, definition, evidence, analysis (implications, suggestions etc) Write it last, using relevant main points of sections of the paper & integrating them seamlessly
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Logic of structure is clear to reader
Structure of Paper Logic of structure is clear to reader Paragraphs build on main idea, are connected to each other logically Have descriptive, brief topical headings Avoid: Too many ideas in a sentence Unless you can handle complexity of long sentences Haphazardly put-together sentences Ensure connection b/w sentences Organizing your paper by article
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Use descriptive writing skills
Paper Title Use descriptive writing skills Precision & Brevity Key variables & their relation OR Key Conclusion Difference between title & hypothesis hook?
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