1. The Scientific Revolution
Key Concepts

2. I. The Aristotelian Universe
Derived from Ptolemy, Aristotle, and Plato
Classical Writings “Christianized”
Components of Medieval Cosmology
Medieval Physics
Belief in “Matter” and “Form”
Earth = Living, Protected Sphere

3. II. Scientific “Revolutionaries”

4. A. Copernicus (1473-1543) Polish astronomer
Sun-centered universe (heliocentric theory)
1st to complete a model of the Solar System
Mathematical flaw that he could not figure out (shape of planetary orbits)
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)
Feared he could not prove theory and worried he would anger the Catholic Church

5. B. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Danish Astronomer Built 2 observatories
Wanted to prove Copernicus wrong
Believed the geocentric theory to be correct
Discovered comet shooting right through crystalline spheres (Supernova)
Spent 15 years collecting data, all seen by the naked eye

6. C. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Assistant of Brahe Mathematican
Studied Brahe data & was able to solve Copernicus math delima – Planets orbit the sun in Elliptical pattern not circular
Thus proved the heliocentric theory

7. D. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Italian Scientist
Built the 1st telescope used for astronomy in 1609
Saw Saturn, craters on the moon, sunspots and the moons of Jupiter
Discovered the Milky Way
Wrote about his findings in his book The Starry Messenger 1609

8. E. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) English Scientist
Developed the laws of gravity
Gravity keeps the planets in their orbit
Developed Calculus
Same time a German, Gottfried von Leibnitz, also devloped Calculus
Argues for a universe governed by natural laws
Principia; Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687)

9. F. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Father of the Scientific Revolution
The Inductive Method
Stated the only true way to gain scientific knowledge is through experimentation, measuring, explaining, and verifying

10. G. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Significance of Doubt
The Deductive Method
Believed everything should be doubted until it could be proven by reason

11. Hypothesis – that can be tested
H. Scientific Method
Step 1
Identify a problem
Hypothesis – that can be tested
Step 2
Step 3
Experimentation
Step 4
Record Results
Step 5
Analyze the results

12. I. Biology
1. Galen
Mideval authority on the workings of the human body
Assumed we were like animals
Never dissected human body – his views were proved inaccurate during the Scientific Rev.
2. Andreas Vesalius
Flemish Dr.
Worked on anatomy
Given permission to disect bodies of executed criminals
Hired artists to dipict was was learned
On the Workings of the Human Body

13. Autopsy – Performed by Vesalius

14. I. Biology English Physician
3. William Harvey
4. Antony van Leeuwenhoek
English Physician
Observed and explained the operation of the heart
Established the operation of the circulatory system
Dutch Scientist
Developed the microscope
1st to describe/see bacteria
Coined the term “cell”

15. H. Chemistry 1. Robert Boyle 2. Antoine –Laurent Lavoisier
Father of modern Chemistry
1st to define “element”
The Sceptical Chemist – matter as a cluster now called atoms/molecules
Stated changes in matter occur when these clusters were rearranged
Boyle’s Law – temp/volume/pressure affect gases
Law of Conservation of Mass = matter could not be created or destroyed
Named Oxygen
Created the Metric system
Invented the 1st periodic table (33 elements)

16. III. Science and the Church
Conflicts bet. Science & church occurred
Church exp. World thru inspiration & thru the revealed thru the Bible
Scientists exp. World thru facts/logical reasoning
Galileo’s Theories
He was in conflict with the churh
Tried for heresy b/c he taught the heliocentric theory
Galileo went before the Roman Inquisition
Avoided death by recanting – house arrest for life

17. IV. Science & Community
Scientific Revolution launched a new way of thinking
Advancements made in
astronomy
physics
biology
chemistry
Sparked philosophers/scholars to seek knowledge & answers to questions of
Poverty
War
education

18. “Siecle de Lumiere” “The Century of Light”
The Enlightenment
“Siecle de Lumiere”
“The Century of Light”

19. I. What was it? Progressive, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldview
Emerged out of the Scientific Revolution and culminated in the French Revolution
Spokesmen = Rising Middle Class
Paris = Center of Enlightenment
Optimism about mankind’s abilities

20. II. Key Ideas Distrust of Tradition and Revealed Religion
Scientific method could be applied to society as well
Society can get better as risks are taken
Man is naturally good
Good life is on earth

21. III. The Age of Reason

22. The Age of Reason
The Scientific Revolution convinced many European thinkers about the power of reason.
This exciting time of optimism and possibility is now called the Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason.
Inspired people all over Europe to take an interest in the world around them
Many writers published their ideas in books, magazines, and inexpensive pamphlets to help spread their ideas among educated readers.
Paris was a center of intellectual activity
Parisian women began hosting social gatherings called salons

23. Salon

24. IV. Famous Enlightenment Thinkers

25. A. Thomas Hobbes English Thinker Leviathan 1651
Insisted people are naturally selfish/greedy
Insisted we need gov’t to impose order
Give up some freedoms to have peace & stability
Social Contract
Absolute monarchy, for success, peace & order

26. B. John Locke English Philosopher
Insisted people are naturally happy, tolerant, reasonable
All born equal & deserve natural rights of life, liberty & property
Purpose of government is to serve and protect the people’s natural rights
Believed monarchs were not chosen by God
People should consent to a ruler (chose)

27. C. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
French Philosopher
Believed people basically born good
Believed we corrupt each other
The Social Contact – wrote “Man is born free but is everywhere in chains”
Gov ’t should work for the good of the people
All are equal, he hated inequality in society
Inspired the American & French Revolutionaries

28. C. Rousseau (cont) Civilization represents decay, not progress
Emile—protect children from too many books
The Social Contract (1762) and the “General Will”
Civilized man is an alienated man
Transitional intellectual figure

29. D. Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)
The Spirit of the Laws (1748)
Despotism could be avoided if political power was divided bet. branches
Power must check power & balances
Admires British government
French parlements must be defenders of liberty
Influence in the US

30. E. Voltaire (1694-1778) Enthusiasm for English institutions
Reformer not a revolutionary
Admirer of Louis XIV
Relationship with Frederick the Great
“Ecrasez l’infame”

31. F. Diderot’s Encyclopedia
Ultimate strength of the philosophes lay in their numbers, dedication and organization
Written between
Attempted to illustrate all human knowledge
Problems with publication
Emphasis on practical science

32. F. Diderot’s Encyclopedia (cont)
Desire to change the “general way of thinking”
Greater knowledge leads to human progress
Emphasized moderation and tolerance
Human nature can be molded
Inalienable rights and the social contract
Knowledge improves goodness

33. IV. Enlightened Despotism
The manner of political reform
Frederick the Great of Prussia
Catherine the Great of Russia
Maria Theresa & Joseph II of Austria
True reform or a cynical, manipulative consolidation of power?

34. IX. Enlightened Despotism Prussia Frederick II
- Elementary education for all Prussians
Abolished torture
Supported religious tolerance but not freedom (Jews)
Reduced censorship
Disliked serfdom but did not free surfs (why?)
Did not create reforms for sake of justice but to build Prussia and his own power

35. IX. Enlightened Despotism Catherine II of Russia
- wanted order & justice
Drafted a new Russian Constitution (never used b/c too liberal)
Promoted education
Reduced torture
Wanted to free serfs but never did
Friend of Voltaire & Diderot

36. IX. Enlightened Despotism Maria Theresa & Joseph II of Austria
Outlawed torture & death penalty
Provided free food & medicine for poor
Granted religious tolerance to Protestants and Jews
Abolished serfdom and paid workers
Forced to revoke some reforms due to outrage of nobility

37. A. The World of the Old Regime
Built on tradition
World of hierarchy, privilege and inequality
Allied with the Church
Challenged by the reform impulse of supporters of the Enlightenment

38. B. Conflict with the Capitalistic Middle Class
Support for the Middle Class social order against the traditional social order
Size and increasing power of the Middle Class
New notion of wealth
Tension and discord created by the Middle Class

39. D. A New World of Uncertainties
The Idea of Progress
The anti-religious implications of the Enlightenment
The relativity of truth and morality
John Locke’s New Psychology
--Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
-- “Tabula Rasa”

40. C. Popularization of Science
The popularity of science in the 17th and 18th centuries
Conversations on the Plurality of the Worlds (1686)—Bernard de Fontenelle
The Scientific Revolution promised the comprehensibility of the workings of the universe

41. V. The Problem of Censorship
The attempt of the Old Regime to control new thinking
Publishers and writers hounded by censors
Over 1000 booksellers and authors imprisoned in the Bastille in the early 1700’s
Battling censorship

42. IV. The Philosophes 18th century French intellectuals
Interest in addressing a broad audience
Committed to reform
Celebrated the scientific revolution
The “Mystique of Newton”
Science applied to society

43. IV. Consequences of the Scientific Revolution (cont)
Laws discovered by human reason
“De-Spiritualized” and de-mystified the Universe
Mechanical View of the Universe
Deistic View of God
--God as the cosmic capitalist

44. C. Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789)
Deterministic view of human beings
Free will, God and immortality of the soul are foolish myths
His views dealt the unity of the Enlightenment a severe blow
Other thinkers repelled by this inflexible atheism

45. D. David Hume ( )
Human mind is nothing but a bundle of impressions
Reason cannot decipher anything about the origins of the universe or the existence of God
Hume’s rationalistic inquiry results in undermining the Enlightenment confidence in reason itself

46. F. Immanuel Kant ( )
One of few philosophes to live to see the French Revolution
Enlightenment was a personal process—release from immaturity
More optimistic than Rousseau
“Dare to Know”—Enlightenment was an act of personal courage