1. EVIDENCE Definition???? Definition???? Support for a claim that is discovered from experience or outside authority (page 112) Support for a claim that is discovered from experience or outside authority (page 112)

2. A “claim” is just an “assertion” UNTIL and UNLESS it is supported by evidence A “claim” is just an “assertion” UNTIL and UNLESS it is supported by evidence What qualifies as “evidence” (and is accepted as valid) varies by the spheres being appealed to What qualifies as “evidence” (and is accepted as valid) varies by the spheres being appealed to

3. Claim – statement advanced to gain the adherence of others Grounds – conditions, events, that provide foundation for your claim Warrant – general statements to justify the grounds Backing – specific EVIDENCE, values, credibility etc Qualifier – the force of the argument (your acceptable level of uncertainty) Rebuttal - answer to anticipated questions by opposition/decision makers Toulmin

4. Types of Evidence  All evidence is “sphere dependent”  Examples  Statistics  Testimony

5. Definition: an illustration which can be generalized to the claim being made Find examples relevant to the Sphere you are appealing to Examples appeal to values Hypothetical Examples??? Examples

6. Statistics  Quantifiable data  Mean, Median, Mode  Statistical Trends/Tendencies  Credibility of Sources (global climate change)

7. Testimony (someone other than the person making the argument) Testimony of FACT Testimony of FACT Testimony of OPINION Testimony of OPINION (expert opinion –can be countered by other “experts” – becomes an issue of credibility (expert opinion –can be countered by other “experts” – becomes an issue of credibility

8. Where to Look Internet Search (look for authoritative sources) Internet Search (look for authoritative sources) Government Documents Government Documents Statistical Abstract of the United States Statistical Abstract of the United States Organizational Publications Organizational Publications Periodical Publications Periodical Publications Time, Newsweek, US News – NYTimes – Wall Street Journal etc. Time, Newsweek, US News – NYTimes – Wall Street Journal etc.

9. TESTS OF EVIDENCE Credibility – source qualifications Credibility – source qualifications Accuracy/Reliability Accuracy/Reliability Originality of Observation (avoid second-hand evidence) Originality of Observation (avoid second-hand evidence) Recency Recency Bias (attitudes of the observer – do they have a hidden agenda) Bias (attitudes of the observer – do they have a hidden agenda) Consistency or Contradiction with established info/data Consistency or Contradiction with established info/data

10. Statistics Source bias (NRA or Uniform Crime Reports of the DOJ?) Source bias (NRA or Uniform Crime Reports of the DOJ?) Statistical Accuracy (statistical exercise) Statistical Accuracy (statistical exercise) Simply put – do the numbers add up!!!!! Simply put – do the numbers add up!!!!! Comparable units (US and Canada? Or Iraq and Iran?) Comparable units (US and Canada? Or Iraq and Iran?)

11. Record/Save your Evidence Note cards Note cards Data files on flash drives etc (so you are not printing out lots of pages) Data files on flash drives etc (so you are not printing out lots of pages)

12. Reasoning with the Audience Cause and Effect Cause and Effect Generalization (Inductive Reasoning – moving from a specific to the general) Generalization (Inductive Reasoning – moving from a specific to the general) A Parallel Case (events are similar) A Parallel Case (events are similar) Comparative Advantage Comparative Advantage

13. Analogy (fundamental sameness in different cases one is “like” another) Analogy (fundamental sameness in different cases one is “like” another) Authority – credibility and expertise Authority – credibility and expertise Appeal based on Dichotomy - force a choice between only 2 choices Appeal based on Dichotomy - force a choice between only 2 choices

14. Fallacies in Argument Hasty Generalization (non representative sample – too little info etc) Hasty Generalization (non representative sample – too little info etc) Slippery Slope Slippery Slope Red Herring Red Herring Non Sequitur (Irrelevant Argument – does not follow) Non Sequitur (Irrelevant Argument – does not follow) Circular Reasoning Circular Reasoning

15. Forcing a False Dichotomy Forcing a False Dichotomy Appeal to Ignorance (ad ignoratium) no proof to the contrary exists Appeal to Ignorance (ad ignoratium) no proof to the contrary exists Appeal to the People/popularity (ad populum) to peoples prejudices, “most people” or “it is commonly known” Appeal to the People/popularity (ad populum) to peoples prejudices, “most people” or “it is commonly known” Appeal to Emotion (such as emotionally charged language – pro-murder etc) Appeal to Emotion (such as emotionally charged language – pro-murder etc)

16. Appeal to Authority Appeal to Authority Appeal to Tradition Appeal to Tradition Appeal to Humor Appeal to Humor Argumentum Ad Hominem – attack the person not the argument (verbal aggression) Argumentum Ad Hominem – attack the person not the argument (verbal aggression)