1. Physical Geography A Living Planet The geography and structure of the earth are continually being changed by internal forces, like plate tectonics, and external forces, like the weather. Iguaçu Falls at the Argentina–Brazil border has 275 separate waterfalls, and is nearly three times wider than Niagara Falls. NEXT

2. SECTION 1 The Earth Inside and Out SECTION 2 Bodies of Water and Landforms Physical Geography Looking at the Earth SECTION 3 SECTION 4 Internal Forces Shaping the Earth External Forces Shaping the Earth NEXT

3. Section 1 The Earth Inside and Out The earth is the only habitable planet in the sun’s solar system. The drifting of the continents shaped the world we live in today. NEXT

4. SECTION 1 continued The Structure of the Earth Continental Drift Continental Drift—1912 hypothesis of Alfred Wegener: Earth once one supercontinent; Wegener calls it Pangaea, “all earth” Pangaea splits into many plates that slowly drift apart Map NEXT

5. Section 2 Bodies of Water and Landforms Water covers about three-fourths of the earth’s surface. The earth’s surface displays a variety of landforms. NEXT

6. Bodies of Water Ocean Motion The ocean circulates through currents, waves, tides Currents act like rivers flowing through the ocean This helps distribute heat around the world Tides are the regular rising and falling of the ocean -created by gravitational pull of the moon or sun Motion of ocean helps distribute heat on the planet -winds are heated and cooled by ocean water Bodies of Water and Landforms SECTION 2 Continued... NEXT

7. Landforms Landforms are naturally formed features on Earth’s surface SECTION 2 Oceanic Landforms Continental shelf—sea floor from continent’s edge to deep ocean Sea floor has ridges, valleys, canyons, plains, mountain ranges Islands are formed by volcanoes, sand, or coral deposits NEXT

8. Section 3 Internal Forces Shaping the Earth Internal forces reshape the earth’s surface. Internal forces shaping the earth often radically alter the lives of people as well. NEXT

9. Landforms Continental Landforms Relief—difference in landform elevation from lowest to highest point Four categories of relief—mountains, hills, plains, plateaus Topography—the configurations and distribution of landforms Topographic map shows vertical dimensions, relationship of landforms Internal Forces Shaping the Earth SECTION 3 NEXT

10. SECTION 3 The Earth Moves Tectonic plates are massive, moving pieces of Earth’s lithosphere Plates ride above circulating, heated rock (magma) Geographers study plate movements to understand: -how the earth is reshaped -how earthquakes and volcanoes are formed Plate Tectonics Plate Movement Plates move in one of four ways: -by spreading, or moving apart -subduction, or diving under another plate -collision, or crashing together -sliding past each other in a shearing motion Continued... Interactive NEXT

11. SECTION 3 Plate Movement Movement of plates effects surface of the earth Saudi Arabia–Egypt’s plates are spreading apart, widening Red Sea India’s plate is crashing into Asian continent, building up Himalayas Three types of boundaries mark plate movement: -divergent boundary -convergent boundary -transform boundary continued Plate Tectonics Continued... NEXT Chart

12. SECTION 3 Folds and Faults Two plates meeting can cause folding, cracking of rock Fault occurs when pressure causes rock to fracture, or crack Fault line is place where plates move past each other continued Plate Tectonics NEXT

13. SECTION 3 The Earth Trembles An earthquake occurs when plates grind or slip at a fault line A seismograph detects earthquakes and measures the waves they create Earthquakes Earthquake Locations Location in the earth where an earthquake begins is called the focus Epicenter—the point directly above focus on the earth’s surface Nearly 95% of earthquakes occur at tectonic plate boundaries Continued... NEXT

14. SECTION 3 Earthquake Damage Earthquakes release energy in the form of motion, causing: -landslides -land displacement -fires (broken gas lines) -collapsed buildings Richter Scale—numeric scale showing relative strength of earthquake continued Earthquakes Tsunami Tsunami, a giant ocean wave, sometimes caused by an earthquake: -travels at up to 450 mph -waves of 50–100 ft. or higher Image NEXT

15. SECTION 3 The Explosive Earth Volcano—refers to the flow of magma through cracks in the earth’s surface Most volcanoes occur at tectonic plate boundaries Volcanoes Volcanic Action Eruption—lava, gases, ash, dust, explode from vent in Earth’s crust Lava—magma that has reached the earth’s surface; may create landform Continued... Image NEXT

16. SECTION 3 Ring of Fire Ring of Fire—zone around rim of Pacific Ocean: -meeting point of eight tectonic plates -vast majority of the earth’s active volcanoes located here “Hot spots” are where magma rises to surface from mantle Hot springs, geysers indicate high temperatures in earth’s crust Some volcanic action is useful: -volcanic ash produces fertile soil -hot springs are tapped for heat, energy continued Volcanoes Map Image NEXT

17. Section 4 External Forces Shaping the Earth Wind, heat, cold, glaciers, rivers, and floods alter the surface of the earth. The results of weathering and erosion change the way humans interact with the environment. NEXT

18. Weathering External Forces Shaping the Earth SECTION 4 Altering the Landscape Weathering — processes that alter rocks Can change landscapes over time and create soil for plant life Sediment—mud, sand, silt created by weathering processes Mechnical Weathering Mechanical weathering — processes that break rock into smaller pieces Does not change rock’s composition, only size Examples: frost, plant roots, road construction, mining Continued... NEXT

19. SECTION 4 Chemical Weathering Chemical weathering — interaction of elements creates new substance Example: when iron rusts it reacts to oxygen in air and crumbles Warm, moist climates produce more chemical weathering than cool, dry continued Weathering NEXT

20. SECTION 4 Weathered Material Moves Erosion—when weathered material moves by winds, water, ice, gravity -movement grinds rock into smaller pieces, carries to new location Example: water carries topsoil from hill to river, river narrows Erosion Water Erosion Most streams erode vertically and horizontally -a valley cut by a stream gets deeper, wider; forms v-shaped valley -a river deposits sediment at ocean, creates delta—fan-like landform Continued... Image NEXT

21. SECTION 4 Wind Erosion Wind transports sediment from one place to another Loess—wind-blown silt and clay sediment; produces fertile soil continued Erosion Glacial Erosion Glacier—large, long-lasting mass of ice; forms in mountainous areas Glaciation — changing of landforms by slowly moving glaciers Example: cutting u-shaped valleys in land Moraine—hill or ridge formed by rocks deposited by glacier NEXT

22. SECTION 4 Soil Factors When geographers study soil, they look at five factors: -parent material —the chemical composition of the original rock -relief —the steeper the slope, the greater erosion; less soil made -organisms —plants, worms, ants, bacteria loosen soil; supply nutrients -climate —hot, cold, wet, dry climates produce different soils -time —about 2.5 cubic cm. of soil produced each century continued Building Soil NEXT