1. 1 Review List the chemical components of DNA Relate Cause and Effect Why are hydrogen bonds so essential to the structure of DNA 2 Review Describe the discoveries that led to the modeling of DNA Infer Why did scientists have to use tools other than microscopes to solve the structure of DNA 3 Review Describe Watson and Crick’s model of the DNA model

2. CH 12 DNA 12.2 The Structure of DNA

3. Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides  DNA nucleotides are made up of  Deoxyribose  Phosphate  Nitrogen base  DNA has four kinds of nitrogenous bases  Adenine (A)  Thymine (T)  Guanine (G)  Cytosine (C).

4.  Nucleic acids are a chain of nucleotides  Nucleotides can be joined in any order.

5. Solving the Structure of DNA

6. Chargaff’s Rules  Percentages of adenine [A] and thymine [T] bases are almost equal in any sample of DNA  Same with guanine [G] and cytosine [C]  A=T  C=G.

7. Franklin’s X-Rays  X-ray diffraction  X-shaped pattern showing that the strands in DNA are twisted  Angle of the X-shaped pattern suggested two strands  Width of X suggested width.

8. Watson and Crick  Used clues from Franklin’s X-ray  Used Chargaff’s rules  Proposed structure for double helix.

9. The Double-Helix Model  Antiparallel Strands  Hydrogen Bonding  Base Pairing.

10. Antiparallel Strands  Two strands of DNA run in opposite directions  A-T-C-G-C-G-A-T T-A-G-C-G-C-T-A

11. Hydrogen Bonding  Relatively weak chemical bonds  Allows for two strands to separate.

12. Base Pairing  A binds with T  C binds with G.

13. 1. Interpret Tables Which organism has the highest percentage of adenine 2. Calculate If a species has 35% adenine in its DNA what is the percentage of the other three bases 3. What did the fact that A and T, and C and G, occurred in equal amounts suggest about the relationship among these bases

14. 1 Infer How do genetic disorders such as CF support the theory of evolution 2 Review Explain two sex chromosome disorders 3 Description Write a paragraph explaining the process of nondisjunction

15. CH 14 HUMAN HEREDITY 14.1 Human Chromosomes

16. Karyotypes  Shows the complete diploid set of chromosomes grouped together in pairs, arranged in order of decreasing size.

17.  Genome  Full set of genetic information that an organism carries.

18. Sex Chromosomes  Two of the 46 chromosomes determine sex  Females are XX  Males XY.

19.  X chromosome contains 1200 genes  Y chromosome contains 140 genes  Most are associated with male development.

20. Autosomal Chromosomes  Remaining 44 human chromosomes.

21. Transmission of Human Traits  Many traits have a pattern of simple dominance  Many are also codominant.

22. Dominant and Recessive Alleles  Rhesus, or Rh blood group  Rh + and Rh -  Rh + is dominant so heterozygous individual is Rh +  Rh - individuals need to have both negatives.

23. Codominant and Multiple Alleles  Human blood types  Determined by a gene with three alleles: I A, I B, and i.

24. Codominant and Multiple Alleles  Alleles I A and I B are codominant  Produce molecules known as antigens on the surface of red blood cells  Individuals with alleles I A and I B produce both A and B antigens  Blood type AB  The i allele is recessive  Homozygous for the i allele (ii) produce no antigen and are type O.

25. Sex Linked Gene  Gene located on a sex chromosome  Genes on Y chromosomes only pass from father to son  Genes on X chromosome are found in both sexes  Remember males only have one.

26. Sex-Linked Inheritance  Three genes responsible for color vision all are on the X chromosome  Males only have one X so if they have one recessive allele they will have some form of color blindness, 1 in 12  Females have 2 X chromosomes so they would need both copies of a recessive allele, 1 in 200.

27. X-Chromosome Inactivation  Females really only need to use 1 X chromosome (males make it work)  The second X chromosome is turned off  Barr Body  Inactivated x chromosome that gets shoved off to the side.

28. X-Chromosome Inactivation  Also occurs in other mammals like cats  One X chromosome has an allele for orange spots  Other X chromosome has an allele for black spots  Some cells has one X chromosome switched off other cells turns off the other.

29. Pedigree  Shows the presence or absence of a trait according to the relationships between parents, siblings, and offspring.

30.  This pedigree shows how a white lock of hair just above the forehead passes through three generations of a family  White lock is dominant.

32.  Grandfather has trait  Two of his three children inherited the trait  Three grandchildren have the trait, but two do not.

33.  All family members lacking this trait must have homozygous recessive alleles  One of the grandfather’s children lacks the white forelock trait, so the grandfather must be heterozygous.

34. CH 14 HUMAN HEREDITY 14.2 Human Genetic Disorders

35.  Changes in DNA sequence can change proteins by altering the amino acid sequences, which may affect the phenotype.

36.  African and European ancestry are more likely to have wet earwax (dominant form)  Asian or Native American ancestry most often have the dry form (recessive)  Single DNA base change from guanine (G) to adenine (A) in the gene for a membrane-transport protein causes this change.

37. Disorders Caused by Individual Genes  Lots of genetic disorders are caused by changes in individual genes.

38. Sickle Cell Disease  Caused by a defective allele for beta-globin (protein in hemoglobin)  Makes hemoglobin less soluble  Causes hemoglobin molecules to stick together with low blood oxygen level  Molecules clump into long fibers.

39. Sickle Cell Disease  Sickle-shaped cells are more rigid than normal red blood cells  Get stuck in the capillaries  Blood stops moving through the capillaries, damaging cells, tissues, and organs.

40. Cystic Fibrosis  Results from deleting three bases in the gene for a protein CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator).

41.  CFTR normally allows chloride ions (Cl − ) to pass across cell membranes  Deletion causes protein to fold improperly  Misfolded protein is then destroyed.

42.  Cell membranes unable to transport Cl −  Tissues malfunction  Children have serious digestive problems and produce thick, heavy lung mucus.

43.  One normal copy of the CF allele are unaffected by CF  Two copies of the defective allele are needed to produce the disorder.

44. Huntington’s Disease  Caused by a dominant allele for a protein found in brain cells  Allele for this disease contains a long string of CAGs (glutamine) repeats over 40 times more repeats the more severe  Mental deterioration and uncontrollable movements usually do not appear until middle age.

45. Genetic Advantages  In the United States CF allele is found  1 person in 12 of African ancestry  1 person in 25 of European ancestry Why that common if it can be fatal if you have 2 copies.

46.  Most African Americans today are descended from west central Africa, where malaria is common  Malaria is a mosquito-borne infection caused by a parasite that lives inside red blood cells.

47.  1 sickle cell gene- still heathly  AND are highly resistant to the malaria parasite.

48.  Similar relationship between CF and Typhoid.

49. Chromosomal Disorders

50. Nondisjunction  Homologous chromosomes fail to separate  Results in gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes.

51.  Most common form of trisomy (3 copies of a chromosome) is Down syndrome (trisomy 21).

52. Nondisjunction of the X Chromosomes  Turner Syndrome  45, X Karyotype  Usually short, underdeveloped, and sterile  Klinefelter Syndrome  47, XXY karyotype.

53. Pedigree  Shows the presence or absence of a trait according to the relationships between parents, siblings, and offspring.

54.  This pedigree shows how a white lock of hair just above the forehead passes through three generations of a family  White lock is dominant.

56.  Grandfather has trait  Two of his three children inherited the trait  Three grandchildren have the trait, but two do not.

57.  All family members lacking this trait must have homozygous recessive alleles  One of the grandfather’s children lacks the white forelock trait, so the grandfather must be heterozygous.

58. 1 Review Give two practical applications for both transgenic plants and animals Make Judgments List reasons why you would or would not be concerned about eating genetically modified foods 2 Review Name three uses for recombinant DNA technology Apply Concepts Medicines interact with the body’s proteins. How might normal variations in your genes affect your response to different medicines 3 Infer Why is DNA fingerprinting more accurate if the samples are cut with more than one restriction enzyme

59. CH 15 GENETIC ENGINEERING 15.3 Applications of Genetic Engineering

60.  Have you eaten any genetically modified food lately?

61. Agriculture and Industry  Could lead to better, less expensive, and more nutritious food as well as less harmful manufacturing processes.

62. GM (genetically modified) Crops  One genetic modification uses bacterial genes that produce a protein known as Bt toxin  Toxin is harmless to humans and most other animals, but kills insects  Plants with the Bt gene do not have to be sprayed with pesticides.

63.  Other useful genetic modifications include resistance to herbicides, which are chemicals that destroy weeds, and resistance to viral infections.

64. GM Animals  The U.S. government approved the sale of meat and milk from cloned animals in 2008  30 percent of the milk in U.S. markets comes from cows that have been injected with hormones made by recombinant-DNA  Pigs can be genetically modified to produce more lean meat or high levels of healthy omega-3 acids.

65.  Combined spider genes into the cells of lactating goats  Goats began to produce silk along with their milk  Silk is extracted from milk and woven into thread  Also trying to put antibacterial protein in goats for kids who get sick.

66. Preventing Disease  Provitamin A deficiencies produce serious medical problems, including infant blindness  Golden rice is a GM plant that contains increased amounts of provitamin A  Transgenic sheep and pigs that produce human proteins in their milk.

67. Medical Research  Transgenic animals can simulate human diseases in which defective genes play a role.

68. Treating Disease  Recombinant-DNA technology can be used to make important proteins that could prolong and even save human lives  Insulin, blood clotting factors, human growth hormone.

69. Treating Disease  Gene Therapy  Process of changing a gene to treat a medical disease or disorder  Absent or faulty gene is replaced by a normal, working gene.

70.  Researchers engineer a virus that cannot reproduce or cause harm  DNA containing the therapeutic gene is inserted into the modified virus.

71.  Patient’s cells are then infected with the genetically engineered virus  Virus will insert the healthy gene into the target cell and correct the defect.

72. Genetic Testing  Genetic testing can be used to determine if two prospective parents are carrying the alleles for a genetic disorder  Use probes looking for disease-causing alleles  Genetic tests are now available for diagnosing hundreds of disorders.

73. Examining Active Genes  DNA microarray  Technology to study 100s or 1000s of genes at once to understand their activity levels.

74.  To compare the genes in cancer cells with genes in normal cells, the mRNA would first be isolated from both types of cells  Enzymes are used to copy the mRNA base sequence into single-stranded DNA labeled with fluorescent colors -red for the cancer cell and green for the normal cell.

75.  Mix both samples of labeled DNA  They compete to bind to complementary DNA sequences already placed in the microarray.

76.  Where the cancer cell produces more mRNA for a gene the spot will be red  Where the normal cell produces more mRNA for gene the spot will be green  If cell produce equal amounts of gene the spot will be yellow.

77. DNA Fingerprinting  Identify individuals by analyzing sections of DNA that may have little or no function but that vary widely from one individual to another.

78. Personal Identification  Restriction enzymes cut a small sample of human DNA into fragments containing genes and repeats  Gel electrophoresis separates the restriction fragments by size.

79.  DNA probe detects the fragments that have highly variable regions, revealing a series of variously sized DNA bands  If enough combinations of enzymes and probes are used the pattern of bands can be distinguished statistically from any other individual in the world.

80.  Genetic fingerprints can be used to help solve crimes (both human and non human) as well as paternity.

81.  The modified traits shown in the graph include herbicide tolerance (HT) and insect resistance (Bt)  Graph is on pg 363.

82. 1. Analyze Data Which two crops were most widely and rapidly adopted 2. Draw Conclusions Why do you think the levels of adoption fell at certain points of the period 3. Predict What do you think will happen to HT soybeans and HT corn over the nest few years- why? Use the graph to support your prediction 4. Infer Why do you think an increasing number of farmers have chosen to grow crops with herbicide tolerance

83. 1. Review State two advantages and two disadvantages of GM foods 2. Infer Write three specific questions about the ethical, social, or legal implications of genetic engineering that did not appear in this chapter 3. Persuasion Biologist may one day be able to use genetic engineering to alter a child’s inherited traits. Write a persuasive paragraph expressing your opinion on the following: Under what circumstances, if any, should this ability be used?

84. CH 15 GENETIC ENGINEERING 15.4 Ethics and Impacts of Biotechnology

85.  In the movie GATTACA, schooling, job prospects, and legal rights are rigidly determined by an analysis of the individual’s DNA on the day he or she is born  Are we moving closer to this kind of society?

86. Profits and Privacy  Private biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies do much of the research involving GM plants and animals to develop profitable new crops, drugs, tests, or other products.

87. Patenting Life  Molecules and DNA sequences can be patented  One fifth of the known genes in the human genome are now patented commercially.

88.  Laboratory techniques like PCR have also been patented  When you do that test you pay a fee for it  Patent disputes over golden rice kept it from farmers for years.

89.  How much privacy in terms of your DNA, are you entitled to?  Do you have exclusive rights to your DNA?  Should you, like patent holders, be able to keep your genetic information confidential?

90.  To serve in the military you need to provide a DNA sample to keep on file for identification  Who all can get access to that information and for what purposes.

91. Pros of GM Foods  Produce higher yields  Need little insecticide or herbicide to grow  Lower cost  Lower land and energy use  No scientific support for safety concerns.

92. Cons of GM Foods  No long term studies  Harm beneficial insects  Overuse of insect and weed killing compounds  Price of GM seeds to high to allow small farmers and farmers in less developed countries to use  No additional testing or label is required for GM food in the U.S.

93. Ethics of the New Biology  The same GFP technology was used to create fluorescent zebra fish  AND fluorescent mice, tadpoles, rabbits, and even cats  Just because we can make these, should we.

94.  Should biologists try to engineer taller people or change their eye color, hair texture, sex, blood group, or appearance  What happens if/when we start making clones of ourselves  What will happen to the human species when we gain the opportunity to design our bodies or those of our children?

95. Survey Biotechnology Opinions 1. Select two issues for each of the following safety, legal, ethical issues related to genetic engineering 2. Design a survey to ask people their opinions on these issues. 3. Find 15 people to survey (only five can be in your class) 4. Collect surveys and tabulate the answers.

96. Copy down the following questions to answer after you complete your survey 1. Analyze Data Did all respondents agree on any issue- if so which one(s) 2. Draw Conclusions If you had surveyed more people, do you think you would have found more or less agreement in the responses- why 3. Evaluate How informed about biotechnology were the people you surveyed? If you were a politician or government official, how would you act on the results of your survey