1. 411 162 Part 1

2. 1. aspiration (p. 56) aspiration, a period of voicelessness after the stop articulation and before the start of the voicing for the vowel. You can feel a burst of air that comes out during the period of voicelessness after the release of the stop. In a narrow transcription, aspiration  a small raised h  e.g. pie (after the release of the lip closure) pie , tie , kye 

3. 2. shorter (Table 3.1, p. 56) 5 th column : vowel is much shorter before the voiceless consonants , ,  nap vs mat knack cap cat back 6 th column: vowel is longer before the voiced consonants , ,  nab mad nag cab cad bag

4. 3.    4. white teeth    final stop + nasal/ stop = unexploded/ unreleased/ no audible release     e.g.  in cat in phrase like the cat pushed…   (see narrow transcription of the whole phrase, p. 59) within a word e.g. apt, act (see narrow transcription of the whole word, p. 60)

5. 5. vocal folds (p. 60) A glottal stop is the sound that occurs when the vocal folds are held tightly together. 6.  (p. 60) A glottal stop usually occurs in the utterance meaning ‘no’ i.e. uh-uh 

6. 7.  (p. 61) Glottal stops frequently occur as allophones of . 8. Homorganic (p. 62) Homorganic = two sounds have the same place of articulation e.g.  and  which are both articulated on the alveolar ridge are homorganic.

7. 9.  (p.63) There is a general rule in American English that whenever  occurs after a stressed vowel and before an unstressed syllable other than , it is changed into a voiced sound .

8. 10. tap/  /  (p.63) Many Americans produced  as  when it occurs after a stressed vowel and before an unstressed vowel. It’s a quick tap similar to  e.g. city, better, writer (see transcription, p. 63) For Americans, latter and ladder are not different.

9. 11. ,  (p. 65) The English fricatives ,  are strongly labialized, and ,  are slightly labialized.

10. 12. aspirated/ pie, tie, kind Rules for English Consonant Allophones, pp. 72-76 (2) Voiceless stops (i.e. , ,  ) are aspirated when they are syllabic initial. (see examples with transcription p. 72) unaspirated/ spy, style, sky (5) Voiceless stops , ,  are unaspirated after  (see examples with transcription p. 72)

11. tenth, wealth (14) Alveolar consonants become dental consonants when they occur before dental consonants. (see examples with transcription p. 74)  /  (8) The gestures for consecutive stops overlap, so that stops are unexploded when they occur before another stop. (see examples with transcription p. 72)

12.  /  (10) In many accents of English,  is replaced by a glottal stop when it occurs before an alveolar nasal in the same word. as in ‘beaten’ (see examples with transcription p. 73) Probably most Americans and many British speakers have a glottal stop followed by a syllabic nasal in words such as beaten, kitten, fatten (see transcription, p. 61)

13.  /  (19) The lateral  is velarized when after a vowel or before a consonant at the end of a word. (see examples with transcription p. 76) 13. epenthesis epenthesis = the insertion of a stop into the middle of a word as in something and youngster (see transcription p. 75) for many people: prince = prints; tense = tents

14. 14. Rhotic (p.92) Rhotic accents are the norm in most parts of North America. Standard BBC English is not rhotic. (*Chapter 7, p. 111) rhotic accent: when the letter ‘r’ appears in the written word after a vowel, the  phoneme is used in the pronunciation of the word e.g. ‘car’  (American English, Irish English, and certain British regional accents) non-rhotic accent: do not pronounce the  phoneme e.g. ‘car’  BUT when there is a written ‘r’ at the end of a word and it occurs btw. the two vowel sounds, speakers with non-rhotic accents often use the phoneme  to link the preceding vowel to a following one. e.g. Her English is excellent. Vs Her German is absolutely awful, though.

15. 15. , , , ,   (p. 97) Tense vowels  long vowels + diphthongs , , ,  Lax vowels  short vowels , ,  16.  (p. 94) In American English, the vowel at the end of words with the –er spelling is usually , a very similar quality of , but with added r-coloring.

16. 17. man, twin, sin Rules for English Vowel Allophones (p. 99) 5. Vowels are nasalized in syllables closed by a nasal consonant. e.g. ‘ban’ 

17. 18. assimilation (p. 109) assimilation = one sound is changed into another because of the influence of a neighboring sound e.g.  in ‘tenth’  dental  because of dental fricative  e.g. across word boundaries:  in ‘in the’ and ‘on the’  dental  because of dental fricative 

18. 19. ‘a’   ‘can’   (pp. 107-108) Many words seldom maintain their citation form in conversational speech. They have two different forms: 1. strong form  the word is stressed e.g. He wanted pie and ice cream, not pie or ice cream. 2. weak form  words in an unstressed position See Table 5.1, p. 108

19. Rules for weak forms of some words, pp. 108-109 ‘a’ + consonant   ‘an’ + vowel   ‘the’ ‘the’ + consonant   ‘the’ + vowel   or 

20. ‘to’ ‘to’ + consonant   ‘to’ + vowel   or  e.g. The  man and the  old woman went to  Britain and to  America. ‘that’  demonstrative pronoun or subordinate conjunction (homonyms) ‘that’  demonstrative pronoun   ‘that boy and the man’      no weak form ‘that’  subordinate conjunction   ‘he said that women are better’      no weak form ‘has’  auxiliary verb       ‘she’s gone’ ‘has’  possession    or     ‘she has nice eyes.’

21. 20. unstressed syllable/ higher ( Word stress: p. 110) A stressed syllable is often, but not always, louder than an unstressed syllable. It is usually, but not always, on a higher pitch. ( Sentence stress: p. 115) English tries to avoid having stresses too close together. Very often stresses on alternate words are dropped in sentences e.g. “The  big brown  bear bit  ten white  mice.” 21. pitch changes (p. 116) The intonation of a sentence is the pattern of pitch changes that occurs.

22. Chapter 7: The Other Aspects of Connected Speech 1. Assimilation, pp. 109-110 Some rules for assimilation 1. , ,   often become bilabial before , ,  2.    before  or     before  or  3.    before  or  4.    before  5.    before  6.  +    7.  +   

23. Linking and intrusion, p. 111- 112 When two vowel sounds meet, speakers often link them in various ways. Linking  rhotic accent: when the letter ‘r’ appears in the written word after a vowel, the  phoneme is used in the pronunciation of the word e.g. ‘car’  (American English, Irish English, and certain British regional accents) non-rhotic accent: do not pronounce the  phoneme e.g. ‘car’  BUT when there is a written ‘r’ at the end of a word and it occurs btw. the two vowel sounds, speakers with non-rhotic accents often use the phoneme  to link the preceding vowel to a following one. See examples, no. 88, p. 111

24. Intrusive  (only for non- rhotic accents) Where two vowel sounds meet and there is no written letter ‘r’, speakers with non-rhotic accents will still often introduce the the  phoneme in order to ease the transition. when the first word ends in , ,or  See examples no. 89, p. 111

25. Linking , p. 111 When a word ends in  or a diphthong which finishes with , speakers often introduce a  to ease the transition to a following vowel sound. (examples no. 90) Linking , p. 112 When a word ends in  or a diphthong which finishes with , speakers often introduce a  to ease the transition to a following vowel sound. (examples no. 91)