1. Review of lectures 1-7

2. Word ‘linguistics’ derived from Latin lingua (tongue) & istics (knowledge or science) Definition: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Linguistics is that science which studies the origin, organization, nature and development of language descriptively, historically, comparatively and explicitly.

3.  Linguists study general principles of language organization and behaviour with reference to some actual language or languages – any language can be taken  Linguistics is learning about a language rather than learning a language

4.  Example of a car  Learning how to drive Learning how  to  speak a language Learning how a car works Learning the organization of language

5. Linguists study the languages of the world in order to answer questions like:  What are the building blocks of languages? - Sounds (combine to make words) - words (combine into phrases and sentences) - sentences (combine into discourses)

6.  Language is objective because it is observable by senses – can be heard with ears or seen when vocal organs are in movement or when reading words on a page  Observation leads to classification and definition – chemist classifies into metals & non- metals, biologist classifies into plants & animals

7.  Linguistics is both empirical science & social science  Linguistics is a human discipline since it is concerned with human language so…  It is a part or the study of humanities – study of literature, appreciation of beauty & music of poetry

8.  In understanding language, human kind can understand itself  Since every branch of Knowledge uses language, linguistics is central to all areas of knowledge  Lyons says: Linguistics has natural links with a wide range of academic disciplines

9.  In modern linguistics the activity of describing the language system is the most important. SO Modern Linguistics is known as Descriptive Linguistics

10.  Descriptive Linguistics is concerned with the description and analysis of the ways in which a language operates and is used by a given set of speakers at a given time.  Descriptive language is the fundamental aspect of the study of language  In descriptive language we describe language systematically at all levels i.e phonology, grammar and semantics.

11. Historical Linguistics Robins (1985, p.5) explains: Historical Linguistics is the study of the development in language in the course of time, the ways in which languages change from period to period and of the causes and results of such changes… It must be based on a description of two or more stages in the development of the language being studied.

12.  A synchronic description is non-historical, a diachronic description traces the historical development of a language (Lyons, 1981, p.219)  Changes in English from old English to Middle English to Modern English – Diachronic or historical study  Structure of English as it exists today and without reference to its past shape- Synchronic study

13. Comparative Linguistics – two languages are compared - History of two languages is compared to discover historical relation between two languages in comparative historical study (or philosophy) - Such a work dominant in 19 th century

14.  L Proto- language (Parent language)  L1 & L2 Sister languages (developed later) All these taken together form a language family e.g Proto – Indo – European Latin Greek German Sunskrit

15.  A sound similarity in each cognat.  They are cognates belonging to a set relating to a word which may have existed in proto- Indo - European language  Comparative linguists try to construct cognat sets & reconstruct proto forms to talk about the changes that have occurred in the development of languages

16.  Comparative linguists study language changes, formation & development of languages  This is not possible without describing the related languages – comes in Descriptive languages  When descriptive linguistics study two or more languages that exist at a particular time, it studies language changes

17.  Modern Linguistics is: - mainly descriptive because it attempts to describe fully and accurately the structure of language as it exists at a given time. - Synchronic study of language - An effort to describe language at all levels (Phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic & discourse level)

18.  Language has hierarchical structure  Language made up of smaller units which are made up of still smaller units & finally smallest indivisible unit – single distinguishable sound called phonemes

19.  Rules of phonology determine occurrence and combination of particular phonemes  Rules for word formation – behaviour of morphemes  Rules of sentence formation – combination & positioning of words in a sentence  So each level is a system in itself.

20.  Rules of phonology determine occurrence and combination of particular phonemes  Rules for word formation – behaviour of morphemes  Rules of sentence formation – combination & positioning of words in a sentence  So each level is a system in itself.

21.  Morphology: Morphology examines the structure of words and the principles that govern the formation of words.  Words also made up of a number of units, the word ‘unhappiness’ involves three elements (or morphemes) un-, -happy- and –ness. Morphology deals with how languages add morphemes together.

22.  Level of morphology is related to phonology on the one hand and to semantics on the other take – took (change in one of the sounds) take the action take + time present change took the action take + time past in meaning

23.  Syntax: Syntax investigates the structure of sentences and the common principles that determine how phrases and sentences are built up from words.  It also explores the way that languages vary in their application of these common principles by looking at the variation across languages.

24.  Rules of syntax should explain how grammatical & meaningful sentences are formed. e.g. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously (meaningless) Semantics studies the meanings of words and sentences independently of any context.

25.  Discourse: a unit of text used by linguists for the analysis of linguistic phenomena that range over more than one sentence. formal and orderly and usually extended expression of thought on a subject  connected speech or writing  a linguistic unit (as a conversation or a story) larger than a sentencelinguistic

26.  Language is related to the inner world of man’s mind & to the outer world of society and social relationships.  Each of these aspects has led to the study of ‘Psycholinguistics’ & ‘Sociolinguistics’

27.  recent branch of linguistics developed in the sixties  study of interrelationship of psychological linguistic behaviour  uses linguistic concepts to describe psychological processes connected with the acquisition and use of language

28.  Psycholinguistics related to mental phenomenon - so mental processes articulated in language behaviour  It studies processes of thought, concept formation and their articulation in language.  This reveals about structures of human psychology and language.

29.  Cognitive psychology: It explores how meanings are understood by human brain, how syntax and memory are linked & how messages are ‘decoded’ and stored  Psycholinguistics studies influence of intelligence, motivation, anxiety etc. on the kind of language understood and produced.

30.  The bonds between psychology and linguistics become stronger by the extent to which language is influenced by and itself influences such things as memory, motivation, attention, recall & perception  Psycholinguistics is language and the mind  Sociolinguistics is language and community

31.  Language is social – cultural, geographical phenomenon.  Deep relationship between language and society  Geographical area considered while studying language (dialects, sociolects etc.)

32.  Language to be looked at from within and without  Language to be studied from both the points of view of form and function  Socio-linguistics – study of speech functions according to the speaker, the hearer, their relationship and contact, the context and the situation

33.  Sociolinguistics deals with the exploration of the relation between language and society  Based on the fact that language is not a single homogeneous entity  It has different forms in different situations  Changes in language occur because of changes in social situations.

34.  Variation may occur because speakers belong to different geographical regions  Example of English:  RP Received pronunciation, south West of England, Universities of Oxford & Cambridge, & BBC

35.  Cockney English – spoken by working class people in England (Less educated people)  Indian English  American English  Australian English

36.  Sociolinguistics – study of language variation and change- how varieties of language are formed when people belong to a geographical region, social class, social situation, and occupation etc.  Varieties formed in various regions involve change in pronunciation and vocabulary both.

37.  Syntax variation – ‘I’ve gotten it’, ‘I ain’t seen nothing  Lexical variation – Lift (British English) Elevator (American English)  Dialectology: study of demarcation of dialect boundaries across a region and of specific features of each dialect

38.  Specific area of human activity  e.g. English used in different fields – of law, religion, science, sports, business etc.  Every field has specific vocabulary and manner of use – it’s called Register

39.  Sociology of language includes study of attitudes to language by social groups – which language is more / less important, which should be medium of instruction/ second language etc.  Which are legally & constitutionally recognized, their status  Sociology of language related to other aspects of social world – political, economical, social etc.

40. Varieties of language  Code  Dialect & Sociolect  Isogloss  Registers  Idiolect  Diglossia  Pidgin  Creole

41. Introduction: Applied Linguistics is the collective term for the various applications of linguistic (and phonetic) scholarship to related practical fields – foreign language, teaching, lexicography, translation, speech pathology and therapy, error analysis etc.

42.  In the widest sense, Applied Linguistics borders on other disciplines e.g. sociology, anthropology, psychology, biology, stylistics etc.  Speech therapists, literary critics, translators, communication engineers, language teachers, syllabus formers, educational planners, text book writers, dictionary makers have found linguistics useful for their work

43.  Use in Psychology, mathematics, sociology, Media, neuro-surgery, law, Engineering, Philosophy, Conclusion  Study of linguistics quenches linguistic thirst  Gives knowledge of the properties and mysteries of knowledge

44.  It Illuminates ancient and pre-historic culture  Helps in improving and reforming spellings, vocabulary, pronunciation, usage, interpretation.