1. Programming Languages by Ravi Sethi Chapter 6: Groupings of Data and Operations

2. Constructs for Program Structuring n The programming with Procedures Modules Classes

3. Procedures n Raising the level of a Computation n Program design with Procedures Behavior Implementation

4. –Behavior In general the behavior of a construct is what is observable from outside the c onstruct Define procedure corresponding to what an algorithm does –Implementation The part that is accessible only from within that construct Hide the details of an algorithm in the procedure body

5. Example n The evaluation of expression (512 - 487) * 2; It can be partitioned into Scanning l Scanning or Lexical analysis groups individual characters into tokens Parsing l Parsing or Syntax analysis uses the syntactic structure of the expression to determine its value.

6. CHARACTER STREAM (512 - 487) * 2; TOKEN STREAM EXPRESSION VALUE Scanner Parser 50 lparen number 512 minus number 487 rparen times number 2 semicolon

7. Modules n A module is a collection of declarations, including both variables and procedures n A module serves as a black box with which the rest of the program interacts through an interface n Program design with Module Role Interface Implementation

8. – Role Modules are usually organized around data. If an operation affects some data, then the operation and the data may belong together in a module – Interface A subset of the declaration in the module Contain types, variables, and procedures The procedures in the interface determine the behavior of the module

9. – Implementation Consist of everything else about the module, including the code for procedures and for initialization Hide design decision in the private part of a module

10. Figure 6.2 Public and private view of two modules

11. Classes : User-defined data type n Design types corresponding to what the program manipulates n A term class is an abbreviation of “class of objects” n An object is a run-time entity with data on which operations can be performed

12. Comparison of Procedures, Modules and Classes n Serve distinct needs n can be used in combination with each other n procedures - needed to implement operations in a module or class n module - used to statically partition the source text of program with classes n differences in not in activity (the procedures)but in the organization

13. Procedures n Define all the details n all the representation is known throughout the program n entries are represented as a pointer to a record containing the data

14. Modules n Hide the representation n provide public operations n advantage over procedures is that the representation is hidden and access is checked n hiding and checking contribute to feel of entries as object rather than pointers

15. Defined Types n As with modules, the representation is hidden, access is checked n in addition, objects are initialized upon creation

16. Program Organization n Procedures at the same level –a sequence of useful procedures –procedures can call each other Figure 6.6

17. n Nested procedures –An attempt to manage programs with many procedures –The idea is to declare a procedure inside another –To declare functions close to where they are used Figure 6.7

18. n Modules –a collection of data and related actions –a grouping of declarations, which can include types, variables, and procedures Figure 6.8

19. CHAPTER 6: PART II 6.5 CLASS DECLARATIONS IN C++ 6.6 DYANAMIC ALLOCATION IN C++ 6.7 TEMPLATES: PARAMETERIZED TYPES 6.8 IMPLEMENTATION OF OBJECTS IN C++

20. 6.5 CLASS DECLARATIONS IN C++ n C++: User-defined types receive the same support as built-in types. n Classes = generalization of records called structures (grouping of data). n Both data and functions can be structure members. n Variables can be declared and objects created in C++ classes.

21. STRUCTURE OR CLASS n Structure vs. Class = Public vs. Private n All members of a structure are public. n All members of a class are private. n Take note: These are by default!!!! n A structure is a special case of a class of the same name.

22. DECLARATION n Keyword: struct n Declarations enclosed in braces {}. n Declarations in braces are members.

23. SAMPLE CODE struct Stack{ int top; char elements[101]; char pop( ); void push (char); Stack ( ); }; n 2 variables –top- data member that holds an integer –elements- data member that holds an array of characters n 3 functions –pop- takes no parameter and returns a character –push- takes character and returns nothing –Stack- constructor

24. Constructors & Destructors n Stack ( ); n …………………….. n ~Stack ( ); n Constructors and destructors are parameterless functions. n Same name as class. n Called automatically: –constructors initialize –destructors clean up

25. MEMBER NAMES AND FUNCTION CODE struct Stack{ int top; char elements[101]; char pop( ); void push (char); Stack ( ) { top = 0; } }; char Stack::pop ( ); top = top - 1; return elements[top+1]; } void Stack::push (char c) { top = top + 1; elements[top] = c; } n Full member name: :: –full names needed to make explicit that belong to class if used outside of class declaration n If class name is known from context, use only the member name.

26. CLASS NAMES AS DEFINED TYPES #include main( ) { Stack s; s.push(‘!’); s.push(‘@’); s.push(‘#”); printf(“%c %c %c\n”, s.pop( ), s.pop( ), s.pop( )); } n After declared, a class name can be used to declare variables. n Dot notation refers to members of an object. n C struct Complex x; n C++ Complex x;

27. INITIALIZATION WITH PARAMETERS struct Complex { float re; float im; Complex(float r, i) {re =r; im = i; } }; ……………………….. Complex x(1, 2) n Initialization of constructor may require passing of parameters. n Here declaration takes 2 parameters. n Declares and initializes complex # x to the parameters in ( ).

28. OVERLOADED FUNCTION NAMES struct Complex { float re; float im; Complex(float r) {re = r; im = 0; } Complex(float r, i) {re =r; im = i; } }; n Functions can be overloaded (including constructors). n Must differ by number and/or type of parameters in call.

29. ACCESSIBITLITY: PUBLIC, PRIVATE, PROTECTED n Privacy and access class based. n Access to members restricted through keywords (apply to outside class: in class have access to all objects in same class). n Public members are accessible to outside code. n Private members are accessible to member functions in the class declaration. Accessible to all objects of class. n Protected members like private members except for derived classes, visible through inheritance to derived classes.

30. PUBLIC vs. PRIVATE Class Stack { public: Stack ( ); char pop( ); void push(char); private: int top; char elements[101]; }; n Here the member variables are hidden (private). n By default: –struct = public –class = private

31. 6.6 DYNAMIC ALLOCATION IN C++ n Three ways to create objects in C++: –variable declarations –dynamically through new –as static objects

32. NEW, DELETE n new T; n delete p; n Objects created by new exist until destroyed by delete. n New creates object of type T and returns pointer. n Delete destroys object pointed to.

33. POINTERS TO OBJECTS n Prefix * is a pointer-deferencing operator. n Cell * p; reads as “we get an object of type cell when we apply * to p.” n Summary of pointer notations: –p->info = member info of object pointed to by p. –0 = null pointer, pointing to no object. –this = used within member functions to point to this object itself.

34. DYNAMIC ALLOCATION USING CONSTRUCTORS AND DESTRUCTORS Class Stack { int top; char * elements; int size; public: void push(char); char pop( ); Stack (int); ~Stack( ); }; n Here the size of the array is a parameter. n Since dynamically allocated storage is taken off the heap it needs a destructor to explicitly deallocate (release) it.

35. CELLS AND LINKED LISTS class Cell { int info; Cell * next; Cell(int I) {info = I; next = this;} Cell(int I, Cell*n) {info = I; next = n;} friend class List; }; n Friends –friend declaration within a class gives nonmember functions access to private members of the class n Cell constructors –empty list is a cell that points to itself –new Cell c(0) or –next = this

36. LINKED LISTS class List { Cell * rear; public: void put(int); void push(int); int pop( ); int empty( ) {return rear == rear->next; } List( ) {rear = new Cell(0);} ~List( ) {while(!empty( )) pop( );} }; n Uses constructors from class Cell (because of friend declaration) n Initializes new list (circularly linked cell) n push adds to front n put adds to back n pop returns value of front and deletes cell

37. 6.7 TEMPLATES: PARAMETERIZED TYPES n Data structures are containers that hold objects. n Operations on a container can be defined for any type. n Type parameters denote the type of element in the container. –Template

38. 6.8 IMPLEMENTATION OF OBJECTS IN C++ n Objects laid out like records. (class = structure containing data members) n Pointers used to access indirectly. n Functions can be expanded in-line to reduce function call overhead. n Class declaration assists with checking restrictions and in-line expansion at compile time.

39. Take you C assignment and translate it directly into C++ using “BIN” objects. See page 246 in PL book for stack object example. Due 10/12/2000