Emotion and Motivation

Emotion and Motivation
Chapter 8 Emotion and Motivation This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images Any rental, lease or lending of the program. ISBN: Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
What Is Emotion? Emotion – A four-part process consisting of physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation subjective feelings, and behavioral expression All interact and help organisms deal with important events. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

What Do Our Emotions Do For Us?
Emotions have evolved to help us respond to important situations and to convey our intentions to others Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Evolution of Emotions
Emotions have survival value and have been shaped by natural selection Individuals vary tremendously in emotional responsiveness Emotions are not entirely programmed by genetics but also involve learning. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression
Paul Ekman-Human share a universal set of emotions. People everywhere can recognize at least seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise There are, however, huge cultural differences in the context and intensity of emotional displays Lie to Me Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Cultural Universals in Emotional Expression
Display rules – Permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society Asian cultures teach children to control their emotions while Americans encourage children to express their emotions. Plus in one culture a grin might mean one emotion while in another culture it might mean something else. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Gender Differences Some differences have biological basis-panic disorder and depression are more apparent in women. Men show more anger. Some differences depend on culture. For example in most cultures, males are punished for showing weakness, crying or sadness. Very tricky to distinguish between cultural and biological differences. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Where Do Our Emotions Come From?
The discovery of two distinct brain pathways for emotional arousal has clarified the connections among the many biological structures involved in emotion and has offered solutions to many of the long-standing issues in the psychology of emotion Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Neuroscience of Emotions
2 distinct emotion processing systems in brain or pathways. Unconscious level, linked to implicit memory, acts as an early warning system. Conscious level, linked to explicit memory, generates emotions more slowly, but the info. is more complete. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Neuroscience of Emotion
The biological mechanisms at work behind our emotions include: The limbic system The reticular formation The cerebral cortex The autonomic nervous system Hormones Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Reticular Formation Brain’s built in alarm system. Works with thalamus and amygdala to monitor incoming information. If it detects a threat, it sets off responses such as heart rate, respiration which all a way for us to be ready “fight or flight” Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Cerebral Cortex Star role because it interprets events and associates them with memories and feelings. Lateralization of emotions: The notion that 2 cerebral hemispheres specialize in different classes of emotions. Left: positive emotions like happiness Right : negative emotions like anger Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Autonomic Nervous System
Emotions are routed through the autonomic nervous system. For ex: In an emergency, your emotions go to the sympathetic nervous system. Your body release stress hormones to help you deal with situation. But then your emotions go to the parasympathetic system, and start to calm you down. But if this situation is prolonged, this response can lead to physical and mental deterioration. . Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Theories of Emotion
James-Lange theory– An emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion Cannon-bard theory – An emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time One is not the cause of the other Both the result of a cognitive appraisal of the situation Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Two-factor theory of emotion – Emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both (1) physical arousal and (2) emotion provoking stimulus Stanley Schachter’s (Singer)theory Bridge research. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

James-Lange theory Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Stimulus snake Emotion fear Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Emotion fear Cannon-bard theory Stimulus snake Cognitive interpretation “I feel afraid!” Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Two-factor theory Emotion fear Stimulus Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Cognitive appraisal theory – Theory that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event Opponent-process theory – Theory that emotions have pairs; when one is triggered the other is suppressed Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Cognition and Emotion Can we separate the two brain processes? When someone has a panic attack, there are no emotion provoking thoughts. But some would argue that we change our emotional responses if we change the way we think. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U”
Inverted “U” function – Describes the relationship between arousal and performance; both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal Performance Low High Arousal Level Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Arousal, Performance, and the Inverted “U”
Sensation seekers – Individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people Research suggests it involves the brain’s dopamine pathways. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Much Control Do We Have Over Our Emotions?
Although emotional responses are not always consciously regulated, we can learn to control them Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Developing Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence – Ability to understand and control emotional responses Emotional control can be achieved by learning Peter Salovey and John Mayer stated that those with high emotional intelligence are not only tuned into their own emotions but can manage their own negative feelings and control their impulses. The Marshmallow Test Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Marshmallow Test As teens, the children who waited were better off: more self reliant, more better students etc. Their SAT scores were on average 210 points higher than the other kids! Those who did not wait, were more stubborn, had troubled relationships etc. In another study, it also showed that kids who were in a reliable, stable environment, were able to hold off on the marshmallows. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Detecting Deception People can also control their emotions to deceive Do “lie detectors” really work? Polygraph – Device that records the graphs of many measures of physical arousal; often called a “lie detector” really an arousal detector for emotions. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Controlling Anger Anger can have a positive effect because it communicates feelings and clarify feelings in a relationship. Relaxation techniques, cognitive therapy and skill development can help. Venting your anger can actually make the anger more intense. Instead, let your anger subside until you can think things out in a rational way. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do?
Motivation takes many forms, but all involve inferred mental processes that select and direct our behavior Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do?
Motivation – All processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Psychologists Use the Concept of Motivation
Connects observable behavior to internal states- If we see someone eating, we amy think they are motivated by hunger. But there are things at play like social pressure or the desire to gain weight. Accounts for variability in behavior- this may explain why you have a good game one day but on other days, you do not do well. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motivation Explains perseverance despite adversity- this explains why some people may work all day even if they did not sleep well. Relates biology to behavior-We have biological mechanisms that we need to function. If we are thirsty, then we want to drink water so we don't get dehydrated. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Types of Motivation Drive – Biologically instigated motivation (hunger and thirst) Motive – Internal mechanism that directs behavior (often used to describe motivations that are learned, rather that biologically based) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Types of Motivation Intrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake (learning to play guitar) Extrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence (e.g. a reward) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Types of Motivation Conscious motivation – Having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire Unconscious motivation – Having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire (Freud) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Theories of Motivation
Instinct theory – View that certain behaviors are determined by innate factors. These are for survival. (birds and migration) Fixed-action patterns – Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Drive theory – View that a biological need (an imbalance that threatens survival) produces drive Drive reduction- An organism will act to reduce drive. (you eat because you are hungry) Homeostasis – The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Cognitive theory and Locus of control
Social learning theory and Julian Rotter: The likelihood of choosing a certain behavior is based on 2 factors: The expectation of reaching a goal. (getting a good grade) The personal value of the goal. (what does getting a good grade mean to you?) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Locus of control – An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences originate–internally or externally Internal: You study hard for a test because you believe you will get a good grade. External: You believe the good grade on the test is because of luck or the teacher likes you. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychodynamic Theory Freud believed that motivation came from the unconscious which he called the Id There he believed where two basic instincts: Eros and Thanatos. Not much evidence to prove his theory but should be noted that it was a developmental. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Maslow’s Humanistic Theory
Hierarchy of needs – The notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Criticisms of Maslow People frequently ignore their safety in favor of social needs. (rescue workers) Culturally, his theory might only apply to cultures who are group oriented cultures not self oriented cultures. Fails to explain why you would miss dinner when absorbed in a book or movie. But it did show how important relationships are to humans. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch Motivation
Overjustification – The process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child receives money for playing video games For example: the children who were rewarded for drawing. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Justification Does over justification happen all the time? No, only when there is no regards to the quality of the performance. People will not do better at something they don’t like if they are rewarded for it all the time but if it is done well then a reward will motivate them. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Are Achievement, Hunger, and Sex Alike? Different?
No single theory accounts for all forms of motivation, because each motive involves its own mix of biological, mental, behavioral, and social/cultural influences Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Measuring the Need for Achievement
TAT-Thematic Apperception Test used to measure achievement. Projection – Process by which people attribute their own unconscious motives to other people or objects Need for achievement (n Ach) – Mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or reach some goal Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Achievement
Individualism – View that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction Collectivism – View that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction It is not the natural thing for all humans to do. Culture must be taken into account! Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Hunger Motivation The multiple-systems approach to hunger -lateral hypothalamus sends messages to brain signaling hunger. Set point – Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight. May involve hormones like leptin and ghrelin. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Hunger Pressure detectors that signals feelings of emptiness or fullness. Preferences for sweet or high fat foods (high fructose syrup) Physical activity. Can suppress hunger but also may trigger the need for more caloric intake. Emotional state can also affect or trigger eating patterns Weight control is a complex issue with no simple answers.. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa and bullimia nervosa Much focus has been placed on the social aspect but now it has shifted to a genetic or biological cause. Brain imbalance, hyperactivity etc. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Weight Control Society says it is lack of will power. But there are many causes including poor diet, lack of exercise, and genetic factors are all at play. No proven way to lose weight quickly and or long periods of time. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Thirst and Pain Thirst motivates us to move toward a substance to satisfy our thirst. Volumetric thirst – A drop in extracellular fluid levels Osmotic thirst – A drop in intracellular fluid levels-like when you sweat, urinate, mucus etc. When we rehydrate, we replenish both fluids. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Scientific Study of Sexuality
Kinsey interviewed 17,000 Americans concerning their sexual behavior. First study to really give information about sexual behavior. Masters and Johnson Sexual response cycle – Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Masters and Johnson They studied and observed people engaging in sexual activities. Important because it eliminated the bias in what was said and could see true reactions. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Phases of Human Sexual Response
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Sexual Motivation Virtually any stimulus that becomes associated with genital touch and orgasm can become a conditioned stimulus that motivates sexual activity Sexual scripts – Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations Both learning and genetics affect our sexual behaviors Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Evolution and Sexuality
Sexual scripts allow us to learn but genetics play a vital role. The goal is too have as much offspring as possible. But the cost of offspring is the not the same for males and females. It may explain why males have more mates in their lifetime than females which tend to be pickier about their mates. But it does not explain why most men and women stay in life long relationships. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motives in Conflict Approach-approach conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options Approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motives in Conflict Avoidance-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally unattractive options Multiple approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How and Why Do We Experience Stress?
The human stress response to perceived threat activates thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and physiological arousal that normally promote adaptation and survival Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Stress and Stressors Stress – A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation (heart rate, shaky hands is your reaction to him) Stressor – a stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaptation(large, angry man coming at you) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Cognitive Appraisal How we react ot stress is a combination of many factors. Individuals vary in how they evaluate the stressor and assess the resources in coping with it These 2 sets of perceptions make up the cognitive appraisal Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Stressors, Ancient and Modern
Stress has allowed us to survive but new challenges in modern day society make it hard to cope in the same old way. Primitive: We have adapted to many stressors. 3 important challenges were starvation, exposure and attack. Survival depended on our quick and decisive action. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Traumatic Stressors Traumatic stressor – a situation that threatens one’s physical safety, arousing feelings of feel, horror, or helplessness Catastrophes(natural and man made), then personal loss, and post traumatic stress. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Catastrophe Cohen and Ahearn identified five stages that occur in the wake of natural disasters Psychic numbness(shock and confusion) Automatic action Communal effort(pooling resources) Letdown (understand tragedy better) Recovery (survivors adapt) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Posttraumatic Stress Posttraumatic stress disorder – delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily re-experiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma 1 in 12 adults suffer from PSTD in lifetime Psychological and biological consequences that causes the sufferer to react to even the most mild stressors. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Physical Stress Response
Acute stress – A temporary pattern of arousal caused by a stressor with a clear onset and offset(an unconscious reaction, sudden) Chronic stress – A continuous state of stressful arousal persisting over time (grows slowly) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Fight-or-flight response – A sequence of internal processes that prepares the organism for struggle or escape Tend-and-befriend model – stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to stress by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

General adaptation syndrome (GAS) – A pattern of general physical responses that takes essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor Hans Selye studied stress and its long term physical effects. (Heart disease, ulcers, asthma etc.) 3 stage response to any stress. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The General Adaptation Syndrome
Alarm Reaction Alarm reaction – the body mobilizes it’s resources to cope with a stressor Exhaustion Illness/death Exhaustion – the body depletes it’s resources Resistance Resistance – the body seems to adapt to the presence of the stressor Successful Resistance Level of normal resistance Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Stress and the Immune System
Immune system – bodily organs and responses that protect the body from foreign substances and threats Research has revealed how mental processes affect one’s health and resources. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Stress and the Immune System
Psychoneuroimmunology – Multidisciplinary field that studies the influence of mental states on the immune system Cytokines – Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Personality and Stress
Type A – behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations Type B – behavior pattern characterized by a relaxed, unstressed approach to life Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Type A Personality Predictive of heart disease(2x as likely to have heart problems. Allergies, headaches, colds, stomach disorders etc. Characteristics that are values in Type A are actually dysfunctional, unhealthy and self defeating. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Responses to Stress
Learned helplessness – Pattern of not responding to noxious stimuli after an organism learns that its behavior has no effect We will give up after not being successful. This is seen in abused children, battered wives, POW’s etc. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Learned Helplessness Research on elderly patients in a nursing home. Control group: staff took full charge of their care as they had in the past. Other group: given more choices and responsibility. Results: 2nd group was more alert and had a more positive outlook on life. But even more surprising: 25% of control group died while only 15% of the other group died! Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

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