1. Formality

2. Why is it important to use appropriate academic language? The words writers choose reflect the formality or informality of the rhetorical situation. Academic writing often calls for the use of formal diction, in contrast to the less formal language of everyday conversation. The use of conversational language and informal tone— writing as we speak—in academic papers is often too casual and may weaken the credibility of the writer. On the other hand, the use of language that is pompous or stuffy can make the writing sound overly complex. Utilizing language appropriate to the academic context can help to create balanced communication between writer and reader.

3. Informal ▫When he talked about the BP Oil Spill, President Obama dropped names to impress his audience. (casual, conversational language) ▫Our new copying system is just great. (casual, conversational language)

4. Pompous ▫Communicating with the municipal group concerning the petrol company’s misfortunate escape of emollient, President Obama alludes to erudite scientific scholars and research communities so as to institute a sense of trust amongst his supporters. (decorous and stuffy) ▫The newly inaugurated copying system has enjoyed a most favourable reception. (prim and stiff)

5. Formal ▫ In his speech regarding the BP Oil Spill, President Obama referenced knowledgeable scientists and research groups in order to establish credibility with his audience. (appropriate academic language) ▫Our new copying system has become very popular with the departments that use it. (appropriate academic language)

6. How can informal or overly formal language be revised? Replace slang or colloquial (conversational) terms with precise, conventional language. Replace informal conversational language with academically-focused language; the use of third- person point of view and appropriate terminology can often help with this process. Simplify language that may come across as pompous or stuffy.

7. Superfluous Words true facts (If it is a fact it is true.) actively investigate (Can you investigate passively?) active consideration (Can you consider passively?) quite unique ('Unique' means the only one.) absolutely impossible ('Impossibility' is absolute.) an unfilled vacancy (A vacancy is something unfilled!) I would suggest (If you mean it, why be tentative?) completely fatal (Can something be half or partially fatal?)

8. Vague, abstract words and phrases Using long-winded phrases leads to vagueness. Be specific in your writing. ▫Do not write:  It was suggested that consideration be given to the possibility of improvement in our facilities for conferences with the object of elimination of noise and provision of adequate ventilation. ▫if you can write:  We need a better place to meet. This room is noisy and hot.

9. Other useful voice tips

10. 'Hedging' In writing, hedging is the use of cautious language to make noncommittal or vague statements, that is: ▫To evade the risk of commitment, especially by leaving open a way of retreat Authors allow for this opening in their statements and conclusions for several reasons: to report the limits of their findings, to protect themselves from the risk of error, and to convey modesty. Cautious language has a legitimate and important place in argumentative writing, although authors need to guard against using it to excess.

11. Why be cautious when “Hedging”? Why Caution? ▫Words such as 'perhaps', 'probably', 'comparatively', etc. are used by writers to avoid committing themselves. If that is your deliberate intention, then all right. ▫However, if it is not intended, it destroys conviction. Where these words carry such implications, avoid them.

12. 1. Word choice: qualifiers Qualifiers are words that modify or limit the meaning of other words. Qualifiers may be added justifiably to argumentative writing to limit the scope of a statement. 2 Hundreds of words and phrases can be used alone or in combination to express approximation, probability, or doubt. Common examples include the following:

13. 1. Word choice: qualifiers Adjectives: apparent, certain, consistent with, few, many, most, possible, presumed, probable, putative, several, some, supposed Adverbs: about, apparently, arguably, fairly, in general, largely, likely, more or less, mostly, often, perhaps, possibly, presumably, probably, quite, rather, somewhat, unlikely, usually Nouns: appearance, indication, inference, likelihood, possibility, probability, suggestion, tendency, to my knowledge Verbs: aim, appear, assume, can, could, estimate, indicate, infer, intend, may, might, presume, propose, seem, seen as, should, speculate, suggest, suppose, tend

14. 1. Word choice: qualifiers continued… When used in moderation, qualifiers temper a researcher's certainty about a method or observation. However, double, triple, and quadruple synonyms are unnecessary (e.g., may be possible; seems to suggest, rather likely to indicate, may be seen as rather likely). Similarly, successive hedge words pile up within a sentence, depleting it of its strength and meaning: ▫A possible cause is likely the apparent tendency of a certain number of patients with diabetes to develop indications of retinopathy. This sentence can be revised to minimize the number of qualifiers: ▫A possible cause is the tendency of patients with diabetes to develop retinopathy. To strengthen your argument and increase clarity, limit the number of qualifiers in each sentence to only those necessary for accuracy—the remaining qualifiers will then do their job well.

15. Useful words and expressions: Expressing the main points in an argument: ▫The greatest benefit … ▫First and most importantly, … ▫One disadvantage of … ▫Another drawback to …. Weighing up arguments ▫On balance, ▫On the whole, ▫All in all, Describing cause and effect ▫Result in / lead to ▫Because of / due to Adding supporting information to a main argument, or introducing other related arguments: ▫In addition, … ▫What is more, … ▫Not only … that, but … ▫Another point in favor of …