1. Chapter 4: Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry

2. 4.1: General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

3. Solutions Solutions are defined as homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure substances. Solutions are defined as homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure substances. The solvent is present in greatest abundance. The solvent is present in greatest abundance. All other substances are solutes. All other substances are solutes.

4. Dissociation When an ionic substance dissolves in water, the solvent pulls the individual ions from the crystal and solvates them. When an ionic substance dissolves in water, the solvent pulls the individual ions from the crystal and solvates them. This process is called dissociation. This process is called dissociation.

5. Dissociation An electrolyte is a substances that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water. An electrolyte is a substances that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water.

6. Electrolytes A nonelectrolyte may dissolve in water, but it does not dissociate into ions when it does so. A nonelectrolyte may dissolve in water, but it does not dissociate into ions when it does so.

7. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes Soluble ionic compounds tend to be electrolytes.

8. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes Molecular compounds tend to be nonelectrolytes, except for acids and bases.

9. Electrolytes A strong electrolyte dissociates completely when dissolved in water. A strong electrolyte dissociates completely when dissolved in water. A weak electrolyte only dissociates partially when dissolved in water. A weak electrolyte only dissociates partially when dissolved in water.

10. Strong Electrolytes Are… Strong acids Strong acids Strong bases Strong bases

11. Strong Electrolytes Are… Strong acids Strong acids Strong bases Strong bases Soluble ionic salts Soluble ionic salts

12. p.122 & 123 GIST What dissolved species are present in a solution of What dissolved species are present in a solution of A) KCN A) KCN B) NaClO 4 B) NaClO 4 Which solute will cause the light bulb to glow more brightly: CH 3 OH or MgBr 2 ? Which solute will cause the light bulb to glow more brightly: CH 3 OH or MgBr 2 ?

13. Sample Exercise 4.1 Relating Relative Numbers of Anions and Cations to Chemical Formulas The diagram on the right represents an aqueous solution of one of the following compounds: MgCl 2, KCl, or K 2 SO 4. Which solution does the drawing best represent?

14. Relative Numbers of Cations and Anions If there are six cations in each of the following solutions, how many anions are there? If there are six cations in each of the following solutions, how many anions are there? NiSO 4 NiSO 4 Ca(NO 3 ) 2 Ca(NO 3 ) 2 Na 3 PO 4 Na 3 PO 4 Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3

15. 4.2 Precipitation Reactions

16. Precipitation Reactions When one mixes ions that form compounds that are insoluble (as could be predicted by the solubility guidelines), a precipitate is formed.

17. Sample Exercise 4.2: Using Solubility Rules Classify as soluble or insoluble: Classify as soluble or insoluble: A) sodium carbonate A) sodium carbonate B) lead (II) sulfate B) lead (II) sulfate C) cobalt (II) hydroxide C) cobalt (II) hydroxide D) barium nitrate D) barium nitrate E) ammonium phosphate E) ammonium phosphate

18. Metathesis (Exchange) Reactions Metathesis comes from a Greek word that means “to transpose.” Metathesis comes from a Greek word that means “to transpose.” AgNO 3 (aq) + KCl (aq)  AgCl (s) + KNO 3 (aq)

19. Metathesis (Exchange) Reactions (Double Replacement) Metathesis comes from a Greek word that means “to transpose.” Metathesis comes from a Greek word that means “to transpose.” It appears the ions in the reactant compounds exchange, or transpose, ions. It appears the ions in the reactant compounds exchange, or transpose, ions. AgNO 3 (aq) + KCl (aq)  AgCl (s) + KNO 3 (aq)

20. Solution Chemistry It is helpful to pay attention to exactly what species are present in a reaction mixture (i.e., solid, liquid, gas, aqueous solution). It is helpful to pay attention to exactly what species are present in a reaction mixture (i.e., solid, liquid, gas, aqueous solution). If we are to understand reactivity, we must be aware of just what is changing during the course of a reaction. If we are to understand reactivity, we must be aware of just what is changing during the course of a reaction.

21. Sample Exercise 4.3: Predicting a Metathesis Reaction 1) Write a balanced equation, predicting the precipitate, when solutions of BaCl 2 and K 2 SO 4 are mixed. 2) Write a balanced equation, predicting the precipitate, when solutions of Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 and LiOH are mixed. 3) Will a precipitate form when barium nitrate and potassium hydroxide are mixed?

22. Molecular Equation The molecular equation lists the reactants and products in their molecular form. AgNO 3 (aq) + KCl (aq)  AgCl (s) + KNO 3 (aq)

23. Ionic Equation In the ionic equation all strong electrolytes (strong acids, strong bases, and soluble ionic salts) are dissociated into their ions. In the ionic equation all strong electrolytes (strong acids, strong bases, and soluble ionic salts) are dissociated into their ions. This more accurately reflects the species that are found in the reaction mixture. This more accurately reflects the species that are found in the reaction mixture. Ag + (aq) + NO 3 - (aq) + K + (aq) + Cl - (aq)  AgCl (s) + K + (aq) + NO 3 - (aq)

24. Net Ionic Equation To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does not change from the left side of the equation to the right. To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does not change from the left side of the equation to the right. Ag + (aq) + NO 3 - (aq) + K + (aq) + Cl - (aq)  AgCl (s) + K + (aq) + NO 3 - (aq)

25. Net Ionic Equation To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does not change from the left side of the equation to the right. To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does not change from the left side of the equation to the right. The only things left in the equation are those things that change (i.e., react) during the course of the reaction. The only things left in the equation are those things that change (i.e., react) during the course of the reaction. Ag + (aq) + Cl - (aq)  AgCl (s)

26. Net Ionic Equation To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does not change from the left side of the equation to the right. To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does not change from the left side of the equation to the right. The only things left in the equation are those things that change (i.e., react) during the course of the reaction. The only things left in the equation are those things that change (i.e., react) during the course of the reaction. Those things that didn’t change (and were deleted from the net ionic equation) are called spectator ions. Those things that didn’t change (and were deleted from the net ionic equation) are called spectator ions. Ag + (aq) + NO 3 - (aq) + K + (aq) + Cl - (aq)  AgCl (s) + K + (aq) + NO 3 - (aq)

27. Writing Net Ionic Equations 1. Write a balanced molecular equation. 2. Dissociate all strong electrolytes. 3. Cross out anything that remains unchanged from the left side to the right side of the equation. 4. Write the net ionic equation with the species that remain.

28. Sample Exercise 4.4: Writing a Net Ionic Equation 1) Write the molecular, complete ionic and net ionic equations for mixing solutions of calcium chloride and sodium carbonate. 2) Write the molecular, complete ionic and net ionic equations for mixing solutions of silver nitrate and potassium phosphate.

29. 4.3 Acid-Base Reactions

30. Acids Arrhenius defined acids as substances that increase the concentration of H + when dissolved in water. Arrhenius defined acids as substances that increase the concentration of H + when dissolved in water. Brønsted and Lowry defined them as proton donors. Brønsted and Lowry defined them as proton donors.

31. Acids There are only seven strong acids: Hydrochloric (HCl) Hydrochloric (HCl) Hydrobromic (HBr) Hydrobromic (HBr) Hydroiodic (HI) Hydroiodic (HI) Nitric (HNO 3 ) Nitric (HNO 3 ) Sulfuric (H 2 SO 4 ) Sulfuric (H 2 SO 4 ) Chloric (HClO 3 ) Chloric (HClO 3 ) Perchloric (HClO 4 ) Perchloric (HClO 4 )

32. Acids Monoprotic Monoprotic Polyprotic Polyprotic Occurs in two or more steps Occurs in two or more steps Ionizable Hs Ionizable Hs

33. p.129 GIST The structural formula of citric acid, a main component of citrus fruits is shown here: The structural formula of citric acid, a main component of citrus fruits is shown here: How many H + (aq) can be generated by each citric acid molecule when citric acid is dissolved in water? How many H + (aq) can be generated by each citric acid molecule when citric acid is dissolved in water?

34. Bases Arrhenius defined bases as substances that increase the concentration of OH − when dissolved in water. Arrhenius defined bases as substances that increase the concentration of OH − when dissolved in water. Brønsted and Lowry defined them as proton acceptors. Brønsted and Lowry defined them as proton acceptors.

35. Bases The strong bases are the soluble metal salts of hydroxide ion: Alkali metals Alkali metals Calcium Calcium Strontium Strontium Barium Barium

36. Sample Exercise 4.5 Comparing Acid Strengths The following diagrams represent aqueous solutions of three acids (HX, HY, and HZ) with water molecules omitted for clarity. Rank them from strongest to weakest. Which of the following is a strong acid: H 2 SO 3, HBr, CH 3 COOH?

37. Sample Exercise 4.5 Writing a Net Ionic Equation Imagine a diagram showing 10 Na + ions and 10 OH – ions. If this solution were mixed with the one pictured on the previous slide for HY, what would the diagram look like that represents the solution after any possible reaction? ( H + ions will react with ions to form H 2 O.) Practice Exercise

38. Sample Exercise 4.6: Classify the following as a strong electrolyte, weak electrolyte, or nonelectrolyte CaCl 2 CaCl 2 HNO 3 HNO 3 C 2 H 5 OH C 2 H 5 OH HCOOH HCOOH KOH KOH

39. Practice Consider solutions in which 0.1 mol of each of the following compounds is dissolved in 1 L of water: Ca(NO 3 ) 2, C 6 H 12 O 6, NaCH 3 COO, CH 3 COOH. Rank the solutions in order of increasing electrical conductivity, based on the fact that the greater the number of ions in solution, the greater the conductivity. Consider solutions in which 0.1 mol of each of the following compounds is dissolved in 1 L of water: Ca(NO 3 ) 2, C 6 H 12 O 6, NaCH 3 COO, CH 3 COOH. Rank the solutions in order of increasing electrical conductivity, based on the fact that the greater the number of ions in solution, the greater the conductivity.

40. Acid-Base Reactions In an acid-base reaction, the acid donates a proton (H + ) to the base.

41. Neutralization Reactions Generally, when solutions of an acid and a base are combined, the products are a salt and water. CH 3 COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq)  CH 3 COONa (aq) + H 2 O (l)

42. Neutralization Reactions When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net ionic equation is… HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H 2 O (l)

43. Neutralization Reactions When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net ionic equation is… HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H 2 O (l) H + ( aq ) + Cl - ( aq ) + Na + ( aq ) + OH - ( aq )  Na + ( aq ) + Cl - ( aq ) + H 2 O ( l )

44. Neutralization Reactions When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net ionic equation is… HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H 2 O (l) H + ( aq ) + Cl - ( aq ) + Na + ( aq ) + OH - ( aq )  Na + ( aq ) + Cl - ( aq ) + H 2 O ( l ) H + (aq) + OH - (aq)  H 2 O (l)

45. Sample Exercise 4.7 1. Write a balanced molecular equation for the reaction between aqueous solutions of acetic acid and barium hydroxide. Then write the net ionic equation. 2. Write a balanced molecular equation for the reaction between aqueous solutions of carbonic acid and potassium hydroxide. Then write the net ionic equation.

46. Gas-Forming Reactions Some metathesis reactions do not give the product expected. Some metathesis reactions do not give the product expected. In this reaction, the expected product (H 2 CO 3 ) decomposes to give a gaseous product (CO 2 ). In this reaction, the expected product (H 2 CO 3 ) decomposes to give a gaseous product (CO 2 ). CaCO 3 (s) + HCl (aq)  CaCl 2 (aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l)

47. Gas-Forming Reactions When a carbonate or bicarbonate reacts with an acid, the products are a salt, carbon dioxide, and water. CaCO 3 (s) + HCl (aq)  CaCl 2 (aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l) NaHCO 3 (aq) + HBr (aq)  NaBr (aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l)

48. Gas-Forming Reactions Similarly, when a sulfite reacts with an acid, the products are a salt, sulfur dioxide, and water. SrSO 3 (s) + 2 HI (aq)  SrI 2 (aq) + SO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l)

49. Gas-Forming Reactions This reaction gives the predicted product, but you had better carry it out in the hood, or you will be very unpopular! This reaction gives the predicted product, but you had better carry it out in the hood, or you will be very unpopular! But just as in the previous examples, a gas is formed as a product of this reaction. But just as in the previous examples, a gas is formed as a product of this reaction. Na 2 S (aq) + H 2 SO 4 (aq)  Na 2 SO 4 (aq) + H 2 S (g)

50. 4.4 Oxidation- Reduction Reactions

51. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions An oxidation occurs when an atom or ion loses electrons. An oxidation occurs when an atom or ion loses electrons. A reduction occurs when an atom or ion gains electrons. A reduction occurs when an atom or ion gains electrons. One cannot occur without the other. One cannot occur without the other. Ca (s) + 2H + → Ca 2+ + H 2 Ca (s) + 2H + → Ca 2+ + H 2 2Ca (s) + O 2 → 2CaO (s) 2Ca (s) + O 2 → 2CaO (s)

52. Oxidation and Reduction A species is oxidized when it loses electrons. A species is oxidized when it loses electrons. Here, zinc loses two electrons to go from neutral zinc metal to the Zn 2+ ion. Here, zinc loses two electrons to go from neutral zinc metal to the Zn 2+ ion.

53. Oxidation and Reduction A species is reduced when it gains electrons. A species is reduced when it gains electrons. Here, each of the H + gains an electron, and they combine to form H 2. Here, each of the H + gains an electron, and they combine to form H 2.

54. Oxidation and Reduction What is reduced is the oxidizing agent. What is reduced is the oxidizing agent. H + oxidizes Zn by taking electrons from it. H + oxidizes Zn by taking electrons from it. What is oxidized is the reducing agent. What is oxidized is the reducing agent. Zn reduces H + by giving it electrons. Zn reduces H + by giving it electrons.

55. Oxidation Numbers In order to keep track of what loses electrons and what gains them, we assign oxidation numbers.

56. Assigning Oxidation Numbers 1. Elements in their elemental form have an oxidation number of 0. 2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as its charge.

57. Assigning Oxidation Numbers 3. Nonmetals tend to have negative oxidation numbers, although some are positive in certain compounds or ions. Oxygen has an oxidation number of −2, except in the peroxide ion, which has an oxidation number of −1. Oxygen has an oxidation number of −2, except in the peroxide ion, which has an oxidation number of −1. Hydrogen is −1 when bonded to a metal and +1 when bonded to a nonmetal. Hydrogen is −1 when bonded to a metal and +1 when bonded to a nonmetal.

58. Assigning Oxidation Numbers 3. Nonmetals tend to have negative oxidation numbers, although some are positive in certain compounds or ions. Fluorine always has an oxidation number of −1. Fluorine always has an oxidation number of −1. The other halogens have an oxidation number of −1 when they are negative; they can have positive oxidation numbers, however, most notably in oxyanions. The other halogens have an oxidation number of −1 when they are negative; they can have positive oxidation numbers, however, most notably in oxyanions.

59. Assigning Oxidation Numbers 4. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is 0. 5. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is the charge on the ion.

60. Sample Exercise 4.8 Determine the oxidation number of sulfur in each of the following: Determine the oxidation number of sulfur in each of the following: H 2 S H 2 S S 8 S 8 SCl 2 SCl 2 Na 2 SO 3 Na 2 SO 3 SO 4 2- SO 4 2-

61. Sample Exercise 4.8 Determining Oxidation Numbers What is the oxidation state of the boldfaced element in each of the following: (a) P 2 O 5, (b) NaH, (c) Cr 2 O 7 2–, (d) SnBr 4, (e) BaO 2 ? Practice Exercise

62. Displacement Reactions (Oxidation of metals by acids or salts) In displacement reactions, ions oxidize an element. In displacement reactions, ions oxidize an element. The ions, then, are reduced. The ions, then, are reduced.

63. Displacement Reactions In this reaction, silver ions oxidize copper metal. Cu (s) + 2 Ag + (aq)  Cu 2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s)

64. Displacement Reactions The reverse reaction, however, does not occur. Cu 2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s)  Cu (s) + 2 Ag + (aq)

65. Sample Exercise 4.9 1)Write the balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction of aluminum with hydrobromic acid. 1)Write the balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction of aluminum with hydrobromic acid.

66. Practice Write the balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction between magnesium and cobalt (II) sulfate. What is oxidized and what is reduced? Write the balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction between magnesium and cobalt (II) sulfate. What is oxidized and what is reduced?

67. Activity Series

68. Sample Exercise 4.10 Determining When an Oxidation-Reduction Reaction Can Occur Will an aqueous solution of iron(II) chloride oxidize magnesium metal? If so, write the balanced molecular and net ionic equations for the reaction.

69. Practice Which of the following metals will be oxidized by Pb(NO 3 ) 2 : Zn, Cu, Fe? Which of the following metals will be oxidized by Pb(NO 3 ) 2 : Zn, Cu, Fe?

70. 4.5 Concentrations of Solutions

71. Molarity Two solutions can contain the same compounds but be quite different because the proportions of those compounds are different. Two solutions can contain the same compounds but be quite different because the proportions of those compounds are different. Molarity is one way to measure the concentration of a solution. Molarity is one way to measure the concentration of a solution. moles of solute volume of solution in liters Molarity (M) =

72. p.144 GIST Which is more concentrated, a 1.00 x 10 -2 M solution of sucrose of a 1.00 x 10 -4 M solution of sucrose? Which is more concentrated, a 1.00 x 10 -2 M solution of sucrose of a 1.00 x 10 -4 M solution of sucrose?

73. Sample Exercise 4.11 1) Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 23.4 g of sodium sulfate in enough water to form 125 mL of solution. 2) Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 5.00 g glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) in sufficient water to form exactly 100 mL of solution.

74. Calculating Molar Concentration of Ions When an ionic compound dissolves, the relative concentrations of the ions introduced into the solution depend on the chemical formula of the compound. When an ionic compound dissolves, the relative concentrations of the ions introduced into the solution depend on the chemical formula of the compound. Ex. A 1.0 M solution of Na 2 SO 4 would have 2.0 M Na + ions and 1M SO 4 2- ions Ex. A 1.0 M solution of Na 2 SO 4 would have 2.0 M Na + ions and 1M SO 4 2- ions

75. Sample Exercise 4.12 1) What are the molar concentrations of each of the ions present in 0.025 M aqueous solution of calcium nitrate? 2) What is the molar concentration of K + ions in a 0.015 M solution of potassium carbonate?

76. Mixing a Solution To create a solution of a known molarity, one weighs out a known mass (and, therefore, number of moles) of the solute. To create a solution of a known molarity, one weighs out a known mass (and, therefore, number of moles) of the solute. The solute is added to a volumetric flask, and solvent is added to the line on the neck of the flask. The solute is added to a volumetric flask, and solvent is added to the line on the neck of the flask. See page 144 See page 144

77. Sample Exercise 4.13 1)How many grams of Na 2 SO 4 are required to make 0.350 L of 0.500 M Na 2 SO 4 ? 2) How many grams of Na 2 SO 4 are there in 15 mL of 0.50 M Na 2 SO 4 ? 3) How many milliliters of 0.50 M Na 2 SO 4 solution are needed to provide 0.038 mol of this salt?

78. Dilution One can also dilute a more concentrated solution by One can also dilute a more concentrated solution by Using a pipet to deliver a volume of the solution to a new volumetric flask, and Using a pipet to deliver a volume of the solution to a new volumetric flask, and Adding solvent to the line on the neck of the new flask. Adding solvent to the line on the neck of the new flask.

79. Dilution The molarity of the new solution can be determined from the equation M c  V c = M d  V d, where M c and M d are the molarity of the concentrated and dilute solutions, respectively, and V c and V d are the volumes of the two solutions.

80. p.148 GIST How is the molarity of 0.50 M KBr solution changed when water is added to double its volume? How is the molarity of 0.50 M KBr solution changed when water is added to double its volume?

81. Sample Exercise 4.14 1) How many milliliters of 3.0 M H 2 SO 4 are needed to make 450 mL of 0.10 M H 2 SO 4 ? 2) What volume of 2.50 M lead (II) nitrate solution contains 0.0500 mol of Pb 2+ ?

82. 3) How many milliliters of 5.0 M K 2 Cr 2 O 7 solution must be diluted to prepare 250 mL of 0.10 M solution? 4) If 10.0 mL of a 10.0 M stock solution of NaOH is diluted to 250 mL, what is the concentration of the resulting solution?

83. 4.6 Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis

84. Using Molarities in Stoichiometric Calculations

85. Sample Exercise 4.15 1) How many grams of Ca(OH) 2 are needed to neutralize 25.0 mL of 0.100 M HNO 3 ? 2) How many grams of NaOH are needed to neutralize 20.0 mL of 0.150 M H 2 SO 4 solution? 3) How many liters of 0.500 M HCl are needed to react completely with 0.100 mol of Pb(NO 3 ) 2, forming a precipitate of PbCl 2 ?

86. Titration Titration is an analytical technique in which one can calculate the concentration of a solute in a solution.

87. p.150 GIST 25.00 mL of a 0.100 M HBr solution is titrated with a 0.200 M NaOH solution. How many mL of the NaOH solution are required to reach the equivalence point? 25.00 mL of a 0.100 M HBr solution is titrated with a 0.200 M NaOH solution. How many mL of the NaOH solution are required to reach the equivalence point?

88. Sample Exercise 4.16 The quantity of Cl - in a municipal water supply is determined by titrating the sample with Ag +. The reaction taking place during the titration is The quantity of Cl - in a municipal water supply is determined by titrating the sample with Ag +. The reaction taking place during the titration is Ag + (aq) + Cl - (aq) → AgCl (s) Ag + (aq) + Cl - (aq) → AgCl (s) The end point in this type of titration is marked by a change in color of a special type of indicator. How many grams of chloride ion are in a sample of the water if 20.2 mL of 0.100 M Ag + is needed to react with all the chloride in the sample? If the sample has a mass of 10.0 g, what percent Cl - does it contain? The end point in this type of titration is marked by a change in color of a special type of indicator. How many grams of chloride ion are in a sample of the water if 20.2 mL of 0.100 M Ag + is needed to react with all the chloride in the sample? If the sample has a mass of 10.0 g, what percent Cl - does it contain?

89. Sample Exercise 4.16 Determining the Quality of Solute by Titration A sample of an iron ore is dissolved in acid, and the iron is converted to Fe 2+. The sample is then titrated with 47.20 mL of 0.02240 M MnO 4 – solution. The oxidation-reduction reaction that occurs during titration is as follows: (a) How many moles of MnO 4 – were added to the solution? (b) How many moles of Fe 2+ were in the sample? (c) How many grams of iron were in the sample? (d) If the sample had a mass of 0.8890 g, what is the percentage of iron in the sample? Practice Exercise

90. Sample Exercise 4.17 1) 45.7 mL of 0.500 M H 2 SO 4 is required to neutralize a 20.0-mL sample of NaOH solution. What is the concentration of the NaOH solution? 2) What is the molarity of an NaOH solution if 48.0 mL is needed to neutralize 35.0 mL of 0.144 M H 2 SO 4 ?

91. Sample Integrative Exercise A sample of 70.5 mg of potassium phosphate is added to 15.0 mL of 0.050 M silver nitrate resulting in the formation of a precipitate. Write the balanced molecular equation. What is the limiting reactant? Calculate the theoretical yield in grams, of the precipitate that forms.