1. Sound
Vibration and Motion

2. Properties and Detection of Sound
Sound Waves
Sound is an important part of existence for many living things
From your everyday experiences, you are already familiar with several of the characteristics of sound, including volume, tone, and pitch
You can use these, and other characteristics, to categorize many of the sounds that you hear

3. Properties and Detection of Sound
Sound Waves
Sound is a type of wave
As the bell shown in the figure moves back and forth, the edge of the bell strikes particles in the air

4. Properties and Detection of Sound
Sound Waves
When the edge moves forward, air particles are driven forward; that is the air particles bounce off the bell with a greater velocity

5. Properties and Detection of Sound
Sound Waves
When the edge moves backward, air particles bounce off the bell with a lower velocity
The result of these velocity changes is that the forward motion of the bell produces a region where the air pressure is slightly higher than average
The backward motion produces slightly below-average pressure

6. Properties and Detection of Sound
Sound Waves
Collisions among the air particles cause the pressure variations to move away from the bell in all directions
A pressure variation that is transmitted through matter is a sound wave
Sound waves move through air because a vibrating source produces regular variations, or oscillations, in air pressure.
The air particles collide, transmitting the pressure variations away from the source of the sound

7. Properties and Detection of Sound
Detection of Pressure Waves
The frequency of the wave is the number of oscillations in pressure each second
The wavelength is the distance between successive regions of high or low pressure
Because the motion of the air particles is parallel to the direction of motion of the wave, sound is a longitudinal wave

8. Properties and Detection of Sound
Detection of Pressure Waves
The speed of sound in air depends on the temperature, with the speed increasing by about 0.6 m/s for each 1°C increase in air temperature
At room temperature (20°C), sound moves through air at sea level at a speed of 343 m/s
The speed of sound is greater in solids and liquids than in gases
Sound cannot travel in a vacuum because there are no particles to collide

9. Properties and Detection of Sound
Detection of Pressure Waves
Sound waves share the general properties of other waves
Reflected sound waves are called echoes
The time required for an echo to return to the source of the sound can be used to find the distance between the source and the reflective object
Two sound waves can interfere, causing dead spots at nodes where little sound can be heard
The frequency and wavelength of a wave are related to the speed of the wave by the equation λ = v/f

10. Properties and Detection of Sound
Detection of Pressure Waves
Sound detectors convert sound energy—the kinetic energy of the vibrating air particles—into another form of energy
A common detector is a microphone, which converts sound waves into electrical energy
A microphone consists of a thin disk that vibrates in response to sound waves and produces an electrical signal

11. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Pitch
Marin Mersenne and Galileo first determined that the pitch we hear depends on the frequency of vibration
Pitch can be given a name on the musical scale. For instance, the middle C note has a frequency of 262 Hz
The ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies

12. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Frequency
Most people cannot hear sounds with frequencies below 20 Hz or above 16,000 Hz
Older people are less sensitive to frequencies above 10,000 Hz than young people
By age 70, most people cannot hear sounds with frequencies above Hz
This loss affects the ability to understand speech

13. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Loudness
Frequency and wavelength are two physical characteristics of sound waves
Another physical characteristic of sound waves is amplitude
Amplitude is the measure of the variation in pressure along a wave

14. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Loudness
In humans, sound is detected by the ear and interpreted by the brain
The loudness of a sound, as perceived by our sense of hearing, depends primarily on the amplitude of the pressure wave
The human ear is extremely sensitive to pressure variations in sound waves, which is the amplitude of the wave

15. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Loudness
The ear can detect pressure-wave amplitudes of less than one-billionth of an atmosphere, or 2×10−5 Pa
At the other end of the audible range, pressure variations of approximately 20 Pa or greater cause pain
It is important to remember that the ear detects only pressure variations at certain frequencies
Driving over a mountain pass changes the pressure on your ears by thousands of pascals, but this change does not take place at audible frequencies

16. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Loudness
Because humans can detect a wide range in pressure variations, these amplitudes are measured on a logarithmic scale called the sound level
The unit of measurement for sound level is the decibel (dB)
The sound level depends on the ratio of the pressure variation of a given sound wave to the pressure variation in the most faintly heard sound, 2×10−5 Pa
Such an amplitude has a sound level of 0 dB

17. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Loudness
Most people perceive a 10-dB increase in sound level as about twice as loud as the original level
In addition to pressure variations, power and intensity of sound waves can be described by decibel scales

18. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Loudness
Exposure to loud sounds, in the form of noise or music, has been shown to cause the ear to lose its sensitivity, especially to high frequencies
The longer a person is exposed to loud sounds, the greater the effect
A person can recover from short-term exposure in a period of hours, but the effects of long-term exposure can last for days or weeks
Long exposure to 100-dB or greater sound levels can produce permanent damage

19. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Loudness
Hearing loss also can result from loud music being transmitted through stereo headphones from mp3 and CD players
Cotton earplugs reduce the sound level only by about 10 dB
Special ear inserts can provide a 25-dB reduction
Specifically designed earmuffs and inserts can reduce the sound level by up to 45 dB

20. Properties and Detection of Sound
Perceiving Sound – Loudness
Loudness, as perceived by the human ear, is not directly proportional to the pressure variations in a sound wave
The ear’s sensitivity depends on both pitch and amplitude
Also, perception of pure tones is different from perception of a mixture of tones

21. Properties and Detection of Sound
The Doppler Effect

22. Properties and Detection of Sound
The Doppler Effect
For both a moving source and a moving observer, the frequency that the observer hears can be calculated using the equation below
The frequency perceived by a detector is equal to the velocity of the detector relative to the velocity of the wave, divided by the velocity of the source relative to the velocity of the wave, multiplied by the wave’s frequency

23. Properties and Detection of Sound
The Doppler Effect
In the Doppler effect equation, v is the velocity of the sound wave, vd is the velocity of the detector, vs is the velocity of the sound’s source, fs is the frequency of the wave emitted by the source, and fd is the frequency received by the detector
This equation applies when the source is moving, when the observer is moving, and when both are moving
The sound waves will be approaching the detector from the source, so the velocity of sound is always positive

24. Properties and Detection of Sound
The Doppler Effect
For a source moving toward the detector (positive direction, which results in a smaller denominator compared to a stationary source) and for a detector moving toward the source (negative direction and increased numerator compared to a stationary detector), the detected frequency, fd, increases
Similarly, if the source moves away from the detector or if the detector moves away from the source, then fd decreases

25. Properties and Detection of Sound
Sound Waves
Assume that the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s. at 20°C. You are listening to an outdoor concert on a day when the temperature is 0°C. The sound of a wavelength of m is emitted by a flute on a stage 125 m from where you are standing. What is the time elapsed before you hear the sound emitted from the stage? What is the frequency of the sound?

26. Properties and Detection of Sound
The Doppler Effect
Assume that the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s. at 20°C. A species of bat navigates by emitting short bursts of sound waves that have a frequency range that peaks at 58.0 kHz
If a bat is flying at 4.0 m/s towards a stationary object, what is the frequency of the sound waves reaching the object?
What is the frequency of the reflected sound waves detected by the bat?
What is the difference between the frequency of the sound waves emitted by the bat and the frequency of the sound waves detected by the bat if the bat is flying at 4.0 m/s and the object is a moth approaching at 1.0 m/s?