1. Methodology: The Heart and Soul of Psychology 1.What makes a psychologist different from anyone else who studies thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Only one thing, our research methodology 2. A Protozoan Tale

2. Reliability and Validity Reliability-The tendency of an instrument to provide the same measurement on repeated occasions. Validity-The degree to which a test measures what it is purported to measure.

3. Measurement Error Measurement Error-Deviations from the true score due to extraneous influences. Five Ways To Reduce Error 1. Double check data entries 2. Standardize instructions 3. Measure significant attitudes and behaviors 4. Aggregation 5. Detect social desirability and lack of motivation

4. Double Check Data Entries 1. Even a few errors can greatly distort results. 2. The student with the 11200 SAT. 3. Confusing missing data and 0 on a computer program.

5. Standardization of Instructions 1.All participants get the same instructions 2. Use of computers and other technological devices 3. Train your investigators well

6. Measure Significant Attitudes and Behaviors 1.In general, the more significant the attitude the more reliable over time. 2.You can ask an attitude that may not have existed until you brought it up: Mayor’s tax plan

7. Aggregation 1.Combining different measurements, usually by averaging. Random errors cancel out. 2.Rolling dice 3.Taking heights

8. Measure Significant Attitudes and Behaviors 1.In general, the more significant the attitude the more reliable over time. 2.You can ask an attitude that may not have existed until you brought it up: Mayor’s tax plan

9. Validity 1.The extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure. 2.Construct-An idea about a psychological attribute that goes beyond what an instrument measures (e.g., intelligence, silliness). 3.Construct validation-Establishing the validity of a measure by comparing it to a wide range of other measures (e.g., Survey of Academic Orientations (SAO))

10. Generalizability 1.Gender bias 2.No-shows 3.Cohort effect 4.Economic diversity 5.Ethnic diversity The degree to which a measurement can be found under diverse circumstances, such as time, context, subject population, etc.

11. Gender Bias 1.Combat soldiers. 2.Retention of undergraduates at a predominently female institution The sexual distribution of the sample should mirror the sexual distribution of the population.

12. No-Shows 1.Persons who agree to participate in an experiment but do not do so. 2.Research indicates that no-shows are different than people who show up for experiments. 3. High degrees of non-participants impact the generalizability of the study

13. Cohort Effect 1.The tendency for people who lived at one time to be different than people who lived at a different time (Will our results generalize across time?) 2.Would you get Milgram’s results today? 3.Support and interest in American education across generations

14. Ethnic Diversity 1.To what extent are ethnic groups appropriately represented in a sample (are minorities over or under represented?) 2.Assuming all minorities are the same a. Kiowa and the Cheyenne b. Catholics and Protestants, Sunni and Shia

15. Economic Diversity 1.College students are often the sample of convenience 2.College students tend to come from middle or upper middle class families 3.Most people primarily associate with persons of their own economic level (Distinguished Lecture Series: What to do about the poor?)