1. K. Sproule, C. Kieran, C. Doss, & A. Quisumbing Gender, Headship, and the Lifecycle: Landownership in Asia March 24, 2015 World Bank Washington, DC

2. MOTIVATION Our work on gendered land ownership in Asia (Kieran et al.) establishes that there are gender gaps in landownership, but does not provide guidance on how to reduce them. Women’s unequal access to and ownership of land held by the household has been argued as the most obvious area of gender disparity (Lastarria-Cornhiel et al. 2014). Changes in household structure may also affect women’s land rights, whether through marriage or its dissolution (Deer and Doss, 2006). Because landownership data are rarely available at the individual level, much of the previous analysis has focused on differences in land rights between male and female headed households. Developing policies to redress gender inequalities in landownership requires nuanced understanding of household and individual characteristics as well as social, cultural, and legal institutions.

3. EMPIRICAL APPROACH Work with the four nationally representative data sets analyzed in Kieran et al. (2015), but with a closer focus on correlates of landownership (Bangladesh, Tajikistan, Timor-Leste, Vietnam). These four countries have different social and cultural norms, as well as very different political histories. Examine determinants of landownership across households: both the probability of being a landowner as well as the area of land owned. Examine distribution of land owned within landowning households, using household fixed effects to control for household-level unobservables.

4. COUNTRY CONTEXT: Bangladesh Customary and religious laws limit women’s ability to own property despite equality under Bangladeshi law. Patrilineal/patrilocal Majority Islamic Customary practices of benami and naior Village exogamy

5. COUNTRY CONTEXT: Tajikistan Cultural practices and lack of land rights knowledge limit women’s land ownership. Land owned by state but long term lease rights exist Patrilineal Dekhan farm collectives Difficult process to obtain individual title; overall percentage of owned land (male or female) is very low Higher prevalence of female headed HHs

6. COUNTRY CONTEXT: Timor-Leste Customary law predominates; some matrilineal communities, but majority are patrilineal and favor men. Constitution guarantees equal land rights to men and women Volatile history Multiple land-use regimes exist, but customary laws predominate Land acquired predominately through inheritance

7. COUNTRY CONTEXT: Vietnam Progressive land laws to redress gender disparities in land ownership; cultural norms and inconsistent application of law still hinders women. Land owned by state but long term user rights exist (LUCs) 2003 law requires both husband and wife’s name on asset documents Inconsistent enforcement of laws; customary law discriminates against women Regional differences

8. Gender inequalities in the probability of being a landowner are evident

9. Male and female landowners have different land and human capital endowments

10. Demographic characteristics of male and female landowners are quite different

11. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. What is the probability that an individual is a landowner, whether solely or jointly, taking into account individual and household characteristics? 2. What influences the area of land owned by an individual, and do these patterns differ for men and women? 3. What is the intrahousehold distribution of land, by individual, controlling for household-specific unobservables?

12. EMPIRICAL SPECIFICATION Probit: Probability of owning any land (whether solely or jointly)= f (sex, headship status, position in household dummies, age categories, marital status, education, household size, household age and sex composition, household land variables, regional dummies) Tobit: Area of land owned (sum of solely and jointly owned land, in acres) = g (sex, headship status, position in household dummies, age categories, marital status, education, household size, household age and sex composition, household land variables, regional dummies) OLS with hh fixed effects: Area of individual land owned (whether solely or jointly) minus household land area per adult = h (sex, headship status, female x household structure dummy, female x household land owned, female x whether land is irrigated, female x household size, female x religion and/or ethnicity dummies, age categories, marital status, and schooling, household dummies )

13. CROSS-COUNTRY FINDINGS: SUMMARY Being female Lowers the probability of being a landowner Men in dual headed households more likely to own land compared to women in other hh types Being the head of household Increases the probability of owning land and the average area of land owned Age Increases probability of landownership Education level Increases probability of owning land, with some exceptions Marital status Being married increases probability of landownership or area of land owned, but mostly for men Household size No consistent patterns across all countries

14. COUNTRY-SPECIFIC FINDINGS Education level In Timor-Leste and Vietnam, more educated individuals own less land area than those with no schooling In Bangladesh, more educated individuals own less land than those with no schooling Marital status Compared to never married persons: in Tajikistan and Vietnam, married individuals are more likely to own land; in Bangladesh, married individuals own larger areas of land In Bangladesh, divorced women have less land area owned compared to never-married women; “divorce penalty” exists for both men and women in Vietnam In Tajikistan, divorced individuals have larger areas of land

15. Determinants of within-household land distribution, by individual, in landowning households with at least one adult male and adult female Dependent variable: Individual land owned - household average land area owned per adult BangladeshTajikistan Timor-LesteVietnam Sex dummy (female=1)0.150.040.12*0.44*** -0.13(0.03)(0.07)-0.06 Headship dummy (HH head=1)0.56***0.28***0.36***0.95*** -0.05(0.01)(0.04)-0.03 female x head-0.34***-0.10***-0.11-0.73*** -0.12(0.03)(0.10)-0.06 female x DHH0.200.04***0.040.08* -0.12(0.01)(0.06)-0.05 female x MHH0.060.08***0.070.09 -0.17(0.03)(0.07)-0.08 female x HH land area-0.48***-0.23***-0.17***-0.42*** -0.06(0.02)(0.03)-0.03 female x irrig HH land-0.05*0.01-0.020.09*** -0.03(0.01)(0.03)-0.03 female x HH size0.010.00-0.01**-0.01 (0.00)(0.01)-0.01

16. FINDINGS FROM INTRAHOUSEHOLD REGRESSION Sex Women in landowning households own less land relative to the average amount owned per adult Females in Vietnam and Timor-Leste have larger landholdings compared to household average, owing to policy reform and culture Head of household Being the household head increases the size of land owned However, in Bangladesh, Tajikistan and Vietnam, female heads have less land compared to others within the same household Household wealth As the household’s land increases, women tend to own less land relative to the household average

17. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS Across counties, being female lowers the probability of being a landowner. Being the head of household increases the likelihood of owning land and the average area of land owned. In general, women in each household type are less likely to own land than are men in dual headed households, with some exceptions. Individuals in all countries acquire land over the course of the life cycle. No consistent patterns across all countries with regards to the relationship between landownership, education, and household size.

18. CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER RESEARCH Conclusions Tying plot-level data to individual characteristics reveals nuances and helps identify entry points for intervention. Because country contexts are different, country-specific results may be most influential in driving policy and advocacy efforts. Further research Explore in more depth the relationship between household wealth and women’s landownership. Further investigate effect of marital dissolution on men’s and women’s landownership=> implications for marriage and inheritance law. Take into account historical and political factors in making policy recommendations to increase gender equality in land ownership.

19. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Funding for this work was provided by the Consultative Group on International Agriculture Research (CGIAR), Program on Policies, Institutions, and Markets. We are grateful to IFPRI colleagues Kamiljon Akramov, Karen Brooks, Chiara Kovarik, Wahid Quabili, and Mara van den Bold, as well as Amber Peterman, a former colleague now at the University of North Carolina, for their guidance in helping us contextualize and analyze the data. We would also like to acknowledge Nynne Warring from the Social Protection Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) for helpful comments regarding the Gender and Land Rights Database.

20. WORKS CITED Doss, C. R., C. Kovarik, A. Peterman, A. Quisumbing, and M. van den Bold. Forthcoming. “Gender Inequalities in Ownership and Control of Land in Africa.” Agricultural Economics. Ahmed, A. 2013. Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey (BIHS) 2011– 2012 (datasets). Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute. http://hdl.handle.net/1902.1/21266.http://hdl.handle.net/1902.1/21266 World Bank. 2004. Vietnam 2004 Household Living Standards Survey. http://go.worldbank.org/RJIOLEHYK0. http://go.worldbank.org/RJIOLEHYK0 ———. 2007a. Tajikistan 2007 Living Standards Measurement Survey. http://go.worldbank.org/JXONKBZTB0. http://go.worldbank.org/JXONKBZTB0 ———. 2007b. Timor-Leste 2007 Survey of Living Standards. http://go.worldbank.org/INZX3WYGX0. http://go.worldbank.org/INZX3WYGX0

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22. Table 2: Summary characteristics of adults and landowners 18 and over, by sex, Bangladesh All adults (n=16,649) Women (n=13,605) Men (n=12,622) t-test of difference (p-value) All landowners (n=4,753) Female landowners (n=1125) Male landowners (n=3628) t-test of difference (p-value) Individual characteristics Proportion in population 1.00 0.56 (0.01) 0.44 (0.01) NA 0.25 (0.01) 0.2 (0.02) 0.8 (0.02) 0.00 Age (years) 40.02 (0.48) 40.68 (0.74) 39.17 (0.57) 0.11 50.13 (0.62) 48.71 (1.08) 50.48 (0.67) 0.12 Proportion married 0.67 (0.016) 0.69 (0.02) 0.65 (0.02) 0.15 0.84 (0.02) 0.57 (0.05) 0.91 (0.02) 0.00 Education (years) 4.24 (0.17) 3.68 (0.18) 4.95 (0.25) 0.00 3.34 (0.12) 2.46 (0.21) 3.55 (0.13) 0.00 Proportion owning land 0.25 (0.01) 0.09 (0.01) 0.46 (0.01) 0.001.00NA Area of land owned by individual (acres) NA 0.75 (0.04) 0.51 (0.08) 0.81 (0.05) 0.00 Household characteristics a Household size 5.05 (0.09) 5.05 (0.11) 5.05 (0.08) 0.93 4.71 (0.07) 4.05 (0.13) 4.87 (0.07) 0.00 Whether HH is dual-headed 0.94 (0.01) 0.93 (0.01) 0.96 (0.00) 0.00 0.94 (0.01) 0.81 (0.02) 0.97 (0.00) 0.00 Whether HH is male-headed 0.03 (0.00) 0.03 (0.01) 0.02 (0.00) 0.24 0.03 (0.00) 0.04 (0.01) 0.02 (0.00) 0.28 Whether HH is female headed 0.03 (0.00) 0.04 (0.00) 0.01 (0.00) 0.00 0.04 (0.00) 0.15 (0.02) 0.01 (0.00) 0.00 Dependency ratio 1.21 (0.07) 1.29 (0.11) 1.10 (0.08) 0.15 1.50 (0.11) 1.29 (0.14) 1.56 (0.13) 0.14 Total land area owned by household (acres) 1.03 (0.09) 1.01 (0.10) 1.05 (0.12) 0.75 0.90 (0.05) 0.96 (0.12) 0.89 (0.05) 0.57 Proportion living in HHs w/ irrigated land 0.63 (0.02) 0.64 (0.02) 0.62 (0.02) 0.29 0.59 (0.02) 0.60 (0.04) 0.59 (0.02) 0.90 a Characteristics of the households in which the female or male adults or landowners live. Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. Table uses individual weights for all adults 18 and over.

23. Table 3: Summary characteristics of adults and landowners 18 and over, by sex, Tajikistan All adults (n=17,627) Women (n=9,280) Men (n=8347) t-test of difference (p-value) All landowners (n=3,262) Female landowner (n=504) Male landowners (n=2,758) t-test of difference (p-value) Individual characteristics Proportion in population1.000.520.48NA1.000.140.860.00 Age (years) 36.99 (0.16) 36.29 (0.18) 37.74 (0.21) 0.00 54.04 (0.42) 56.99 (0.85) 53.58 (0.42) 0.00 Proportion married 0.69 (0.01) 0.67 (0.01) 0.71 (0.01) 0.00 0.87 (0.01) 0.29 (0.03) 0.96 (0.01) 0.00 Education (years) 10.55 (0.06) 9.87 (0.07) 11.26 (0.06) 0.00 10.96 (0.11) 8.38 (0.26) 11.36 (0.10) 0.00 Proportion owning land 0.17 (0.01) 0.05 (0.00) 0.31 (0.01) 0.001.00NA Area of land owned by the individual NA 0.26 (0.01) 0.25 (0.02) 0.26 (0.01) 0.35 Household characteristics a Household size 8.60 (0.12) 8.57 (.12) 8.65 (.12) 0.02 7.99 (0.10) 7.45 (.19) 8.07 (0.11) 0.00 Whether the HH is dual-headed 0.86 (0.01) 0.84 (0.01) 0.88 (0.01) 0.00 0.87 (0.01) 0.32 (0.03) 0.95 (0.01) 0.00 Whether the HH is male-headed 0.03 (0.00) 0.02 (0.00) 0.04 (0.00) 0.00 0.03 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.03 (0.00) 0.00 Whether the HH is female headed 0.11 (0.01) 0.14 (0.01) 0.08 (0.01) 0.00 0.10 (0.01) 0.68 (0.03) 0.01 (0.00) 0.00 Dependency ratio 0.84 (0.01) 0.85 (0.01) 0.81 (0.01) 0.00 0.99 (0.02) 1.11 (0.05) 0.96 (0.02) 0.00 Total land area owned by household (acres) 0.33 (0.02) 0.33 (0.02) 0.34 (0.02) 0.12 0.42 (0.02) 0.37 (0.03) 0.42 (0.02) 0.09 Proportion living in HHs w/ irrigated land 0.63 (0.02) 0.63 (0.02) 0.64 (0.02) 0.13 0.82 (0.02) 0.84 (0.03) 0.82 (0.02) 0.39 a Characteristics of the households in which the female or male adults or landowners live. Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. Table uses individual weights for all adults 18 and over.

24. Table 4: Summary characteristics of adults and landowners 18 and over, by sex, Timor-Leste All adults (n=12,449) Women (n=6,473) Men (n=5,976) t-test of difference (p-value) All landowners (n=3,230) Female landowners (n=517) Male landowner s (n=3,314) t-test of difference (p-value) Individual characteristics Proportion in population1.000.520.48NA1.0000.160.840.00 Age (years) 36.30 (0.23) 37.16 (0.28) 35.35 (0.31) 0.00 46.26 (0.47) 50.50 (1.02) 45.45 (0.51) 0.00 Proportion married 0.56 (0.01) 0.60 (0.01) 0.51 (0.01) 0.00 0.78 (0.01) 0.20 (0.03) 0.89 (0.01) 0.00 Education (years) 5.21 (0.16) 4.27 (0.18) 6.23 (0.17) 0.00 3.05 (0.16) 1.27 (0.24) 3.38 (0.19) 0.00 Proportion owning land 0.20 (0.01) 0.06 (0.00) 0.35 (0.01) 0.001.00NA Area of land owned by individual (in acres) NA 0.60 (0.04) 0.71 (0.11) 0.59 (0.04) 0.20 Household characteristics a Household size 7.04 (0.14) 6.96 (0.14) 7.14 (0.14) 0.03 5.61 (0.08) 4.79 (0.24) 5.77 (.08) 0.00 Whether HH is dual-headed 0.84 (0.01) 0.83 (0.01) 0.84 (0.01) 0.35 0.81 (0.01) 0.26 (0.04) 0.92 (0.01) 0.00 Whether HH is male-headed 0.05 (0.01) 0.03 (0.00) 0.07 (0.01) 0.00 0.06 (0.01) 0.02 (0.01) 0.07 (0.01) 0.00 Whether HH is female headed 0.11 (0.01) 0.14 (0.01) 0.09 (0.01) 0.00 0.12 (0.01) 0.72 (.04) 0.01 (0.00) 0.00 Dependency ratio 1.00 (0.02) 1.04 (0.03) 0.96 (0.02) 0.00 1.23 (0.03) 0.91 (0.05) 1.29 (0.03) 0.00 Total land area owned by household (in acres) 0.56 (0.06) 0.44 (0.08) 0.68 (0.08) 0.00 1.32 (0.16) 1.24 (0.20) 1.33 (0.16) 0.67 Proportion living in HHs w/ irrigated land 0.09 (0.01) 0.07 (0.01) 0.10 (0.01) 0.00 0.15 (0.02) 0.15 (.03) 0.16 (.02) 0.79 a Characteristics of the households in which the female or male adults or landowners live Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. Table uses individual weights for all adults 18 and over.

25. Table 5: Summary characteristics of adults and landowners 18 and over, by sex, Vietnam All adults (n=16,649) Women (n=13,605) Men (n=12,622) t-test of difference (p-value) All landowners (n=4,753) Female landowners (n=1125) Male landowners (n=3628) t-test of difference (p-value) Individual characteristics Proportion in population 1.00 0.51 (0.00) 0.49 (0.00) NA 0.27 (0.00) 0.31 (0.01) 0.69 (0.01) 0.00 Age (years) 40.13 (0.14) 41.14 (0.19) 39.08 (0.15) 0.00 50.62 (0.22) 51.84 (0.32) 50.05 (0.22) 0.00 Proportion married 0.64 (0.00) 0.63 (0.01) 0.65 (0.01) 0.00 0.87 (0.01) 0.66 (0.01) 0.96 (0.00) 0.00 Education (years) 8.02 (0.09) 7.56 (0.10) 8.47 (0.09) 0.00 7.86 (0.09) 7.32 (0.14) 8.08 (0.09) 0.00 Proportion owning land 0.27 (0.00) 0.16 (0.00) 0.38 (0.01) 0.001.00NA Average area of land owned by individual (acres) NA 0.95 (0.04) 0.71 (0.04) 1.06 (0.04) 0.00 Household characteristics a Household size 5.45 (0.05) 5.44 (0.01) 5.45 (0.05) 0.50 4.97 (0.04) 4.7 (0.05) 5.09 (0.04) 0.00 Whether HH is dual-headed 0.85 (0.01) 0.81 (0.01) 0.88 (0.01) 0.00 0.86 (0.01) 0.67 (0.01) 0.95 (0.00) 0.00 Whether HH is male- headed 0.03 (0.00) 0.02 (0.00) 0.04 (0.00) 0.00 0.02 (0.00) 0.00 (0.00) 0.03 (0.00) 0.00 Whether HH is female headed 0.13 (0.01) 0.16 (0.01) 0.09 (0.00) 0.00 0.11 (0.00) 0.32 (0.01) 0.02 (0.00) 0.00 Dependency ratio 0.5 (0.01) 0.52 (0.01) 0.48 (0.01) 0.00 0.56 (0.01) 0.53 (0.01) 0.58 (0.01) 0.00 Total land area owned by household (acres) 0.84 (0.03) 0.82 (0.03) 0.86 (0.04) 0.00 1.01 (0.04) 0.80 (0.04) 1.10 (0.04) 0.00 Proportion living in HHs w/ irrigated land 0.46 (0.01) 0.46 (0.01) 0.47 (0.01) 0.06 0.60 (0.01) 0.53 (0.02) 0.63 (0.01) 0.00 a Characteristics of the households in which the female or male adults or landowners live Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. Table uses individual weights for all adults 18 and over.