1. Gender, Sex and Sexuality
AP Psychology
Alice F. Short
Hilliard Davidson High School

2. Chapter Preview Defining Sex and Gender Theories of Gender Development
Gender Differences
Sexual Orientation
Sexual Behaviors and Practices
Sexual Variations and Disorders
Sexuality and Health and Wellness

3. Defining Sex sex - properties that determine male or female
23rd pair of chromosomes: XY or XX
pair of genes
gonads = glands (part of endocrine system)
ovaries (either side of abdomen)
testes (in scrotum, the pouch of skin below the penis)
gonadal hormones: estrogens or androgens
gametes – the ova and sperm  will be used in reproduction
internal reproductive structures
hormone levels
females: more progesterone and estrogen
males: more androgens (common = testosterone)
DOCUMENTARY: It’s a Girl
Defining Sex
FUN FACT: There are no hormones that are unique to one sex, but the levels of hormones vary by sex.

4. Defining Sex external genitalia
female: vulva
mons pubis – a fleshy area just above the vagina
labia – lips surrounding the vaginal opening
clitoris – a small sensory organ at the top where the labia meet
male
penis
scrotum
secondary sex characteristics (at puberty) – traits that differ between the two sexes but are not part of the reproductive system
breasts
facial hair
sex may not equal psychological experience (gender)

5. Female and Male Internal Sex Organs and External Genitalia Fig 11.2, p. 347

6. Pubertal Growth Fig 11.3, p. 347

7. Defining Gender
gender - social and psychological aspects of being female or male
goes beyond biological sex
includes a person’s understanding of the meaning to his or her own life of being male or female
gender identity – an individual’s multifaceted sense of belonging to the male or female sex
masculinity (instrumentality)
femininity (expressiveness)
androgyny (both)
undifferentiated (neither)
COMFORT: pressure to conform

8. Defining Gender: Masculine vs. Femine
gender identity
masculinity (instrumentality)
assertive
brave
independent
dominant
femininity (expressiveness)
nurturing
warm
gentle
sensitive to others
androgyny (both)
undifferentiated (neither)

9. A SHORT Time to Ponder
How do you feel about the characteristics associated with being masculine or feminine?
NOTE: “Research has shown that individuals who are not strongly gender-typed according to these scales tend to have better psychological adjustment and resilience than those rated as extremely masculine or feminine.” – p. 348

10. Sexual Development embryonic development of gonads and genitalia
SRY gene  testes  androgens  male physiology
female is “default” condition
gender differences in regards to the brain
size of brain parts
function of brain parts
corresponding cognitive function
which part of brain involved in particular behaviors

11. INTERSECTION Gender and Neuroscience: Are There His and Hers Brains p

12. Sexual Development Disorders of Sexual Development
formerly called intersex conditions / hermaphroditism
congenitally atypical chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical development
questions of relation of DSD to gender development
CASE STUDY:
Researcher: John Money… “success” story
John/Joan (p. 350)
Book: As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl, by John Polapinto
Conclusion: 2004 suicide
NOTE: Professionals still debate what is the best way to handle DSD situations… what do you think?

13. Sexual Development: Transgender Experience
transgender – experiencing one’s psychological gender as different from one’s physical sex, as in the cases of biological males who identify as female, and biological females who identify as male
Gender Identity Disorder (GID) – strong, persistent cross-sex identification and a continuing discomfort with, or sense of inappropriateness of, one’s assigned sex
not considered a disorder in France or Great Britain
gender dysphoria – distress over one’s born sex
sex reassignment surgery
cannot have experienced disorder of sexual development (DSD)
distress must interfere with daily life
NOTE: Professionals still debate what is the best way to handle DSD situations… what do you think?

14. Gender Development: Biological
Biological Accounts
genes, gonads, hormones (esp. prenatal hormones), brain structures and functions
behavioral difference in newborns and infants
1-day-old girls: human face
1-day-old boys: mobile made out of face
Beginning p. 353

15. Gender Development: Evolutionary
Evolutionary Accounts
sexual selection – according to Darwin’s theory of evolution, the differentiation between the male and female members of a species because of the differences between the two in competition and choice
selection pressures for gendered behaviors
competition for mate (usually by male)
preferences/choice for quality mate (usually by female)
reproductive challenges: quality v. quantity
human infants = helpless  adaptive for men to invest in their offspring
is it mine? (younger ladies)
Beginning p. 353

16. Gender Development: Social Cognitive
Social Cognitive Accounts
experience influences sense of gender
socialization (rewards, punishments, modeling)
Albert Bandura – modeling is an especially potent mechanism for transmitting values
gender schema (mental framework)
gender-nonconforming behavior
peers = harsher than family after age 6
DOCUMENTARY: Miss Representation
(You can’t be who you can’t see.)

17. A SHORT Time to Ponder
In what ways in your life have you been encouraged to behave more like your sex? What do you see in society?

18. Gender Development: Social Role Theory
Alice Eagly
division of labor
natural differences become expected/valued differences
gender roles – expectations for how females and males should think, act and feel
gender stereotypes – overly general beliefs and expectations about what women and men are like
institutional structures
patterns of opportunity that perpetuate gender differences
women have resources  less likely to prefer men with resources
TED Talks: Sheryl Sandberg
Fig. 11.5: Summary of Gender and Gender Development Theories on p. 357

19. A SHORT Time to Ponder
Look at the table on p Which perspective do you think is MOST correct? Why?

20. Gender Differences Who are more ___________?
For each adjective on the next slide, answer as quickly as you can with either “men” or “women”.

21. Gender Differences Who are more . . . assertive sexually adventurous
rational
creative
emotional
reserved
aggressive
verbal
strong
active

22. Gender Differences Cognitive Differences Differences due to:
math and science?
verbal performance (female advantage)
visuospatial ability (male advantage)
general intelligence (no advantage)
Differences due to:
social expectations and support v. evolved roles
gender similarities hypothesis – Janet Shibley Hyde’s proposition that men and women (and boys and girls) are much more similar than they are different

23. A SHORT Time to Ponder
Is the career you are interested in pursuing going to give you the life you want?
Do you have a role model that holds that career?

24. Gender Differences Differences in Aggression
overt aggression (physical/verbal harm)
males more than females
relational aggression (harm social standing w/ females)
females more than males
severely damaging psychologically
why the difference?
testosterone?
evolutionary pressures?
socialization?
conduct disorder – a pattern of offensive behavior that violates the basic rights of others (3x more like in boys)
accommodations for conduct disorder on an IEP?

25. Gender Differences Differences in Sexuality (p. 360-361- Inquiry)
females more selective in regards to casual sex
“bed” = none, “apartment” = very few, “going out” = 50%
males more often aroused, stronger sex drive, less fidelity
“bed” = 75%, “apartment” = 70%, “going out” = 50%
women more likely to engage in bisexuality or be aroused by bisexual stimuli; show changes in their sexual patterns/desires
Explanations:
biological - genetic/hormonal differences
evolutionary - sexual selection
social cognitive - learned behavior
social role - culturally constructed

26. Sexual Orientation
sexual orientation - direction of erotic interests - refers to more than just sexual behavior
Orientations: (operational definition matters)
heterosexual (90% of population)
homosexual (1500 animal species)
2-10% of population, greater in males
exists in every culture (no matter how intolerant)
bisexual
Lisa Diamond (2008) – stable bisexual identity
orientation does change  behavior often does (stable relationships)
SNL Skit… 

27. A SHORT Time to Ponder
“In some cultures, engaging in same-sex sexual activity is not viewed as an indication of the person’s identity, but in Western societies, there is a strong belief that sexual orientation is a stable personal attribute.”
Why do you think this is the case?
Quote from p of the textbook

28. Sexual Orientation Orientation is not influenced by…
being reared by a gay parent
parenting style
childhood sexual experimentation

29. Origins of Sexual Orientation
Thinking critically about sexual orientation:
probably not a single cause
within-group variation
research challenges such as recruitment
gay pride events… what problem?
meaning of cross-sex similarities
gay men are men
lesbian women are women
consideration of more than just homosexuality

30. Sexual Orientation Orientation is influenced by genetics
35% in men
19% in females
corpus callosum thickness and hemispheric symmetry (in general)
heterosexual men and lesbians have larger right hemispheres
heterosexual women and gay men have similar patterns of similarity
gay men have thicker corpus callosum
prenatal hormones
2D:4D ratio
women have the same length
men / “butch” lesbian women have a ring finger longer than their pointer (male prenatal androgens)
ACTIVITY: Look at your hands!!!
cognitive factors
social factors (gender non-conforming behavior)
gender non-conforming more predictive in boys… why?
Why might culture influence genetic responses?

31. Gay and Lesbian Functioning
similarities to heterosexual population
attitudes, psychological adjustment
difference from heterosexual population
hobbies, activities, occupations
coping with prejudice and discrimination
1984: 24% knew someone gay; 2006: 70% knew someone gay
Generation Next ( ): 58% homosexuality should be accepted, just under ½ thought same-sex marriage should be legal
coming out

32. Gay and Lesbian Functioning
Relationships
report greater satisfaction than heterosexuals
kids  reduce happiness / relationship satisfaction
more likely to end relationships than heterosexuals
legal tie of marriage  associated with relationship stability
Families
less likely to have children
children of gay couples have not shown differences from other children

33. American Psychological Association
“… the American Psychological Association issued a press release supporting ay marriage and opposing discrimination against gay men and lesbian women in matters such as parenting, adoption, and child custody.” (2004)

34. Sexual Behavior What constitutes sexual behavior?
infidelity or loss of virginity
activities involved in reproduction
arousal and sexual response
unusually intimate and personal activity as defined by the participants
What do you think constitutes sexual behaviors? Does that definition change when you think about cheating?

35. A SHORT Time to Ponder
What do you think most people in your peer group would define as sexual behavior?

36. Sexual Behavior: Kinsey Scale

37. Sexual Behavior Kinsey’s (1948) research (father of sexology)
12% men, 7% women = bixsexual
are most people promiscuous or faithful?
50% men = unfaithful
later research: 85% women, 75% men = faithful
does marriage decrease sexual activity? p. 370
what percentage of the population are virgins?
aged 15-44: men 10%, women 8%
aged 25-44: 3%
how often do we have sex (on average)? who masturbates the most?
men (per month):
vaginal intercourse: 5 times
masturbation: 4.5 times
oral sex: 2 times
Women (per month)
vaginal intercourse: 5 times
masturbation: fewer than 2 times

38. Sexual Response Pattern
Human Sexual Response Pattern, William Masters and Virginia Johnson 1966
excitement – begins the process of erotic responsiveness
several minutes to several hours
engorgement of blood vessels, increased blood flow to genital areas, partial penile erection
plateau – continuation and heightening
increased breathing, pulse rate, blood pressure
penile erection / vaginal lubrication complete
orgasm
3-15 seconds
explosive charge of neuromuscular tension
release of neurotransmitter oxytocin
resolution/male refractory period
blood vessels return to normal state
Helen Singer Kaplan (1974): initials stage of desire should be added
some patients lacked sexual desire

39. Sexual Cognition Cognitive factors in sexual behavior
sensation and perception
self-monitoring and self-regulation
fantasy and imagery
sexual scripts – patterns of expectancies for how people should behave sexually
males and females have different scripts
males – focuses on genitals and orgasm
females – expression of intimacy, orgasm an optional feature
porn vs. romance novels

40. Influences on Sexuality
Influence of Culture
John Messenger (1971)
Inis Beag (island off Ireland)
knew nothing about tongue kissing or hand stimulation of penis
detested nudity
premarital sex = out of the question for both sexes
men avoided sex (bad for health)
sex occurred at night and as quickly as possible
female orgasm = incredibly rare

41. Influences on Sexuality
Influence of Culture
Donald Marshall (1971)
Mangaia
young boys taught about masturbation (encouraged)
at 13, boys instructed on sexual strategies by elders
2 weeks later, intercourse with experienced woman
help them hold back from ejaculation until she experienced orgasm
later: sex every day
women report high frequency of orgasm

42. A SHORT Time to Ponder
Consider the two case studies, what do you notice about the long-term outcomes on sexual behavior as influenced by culture?
What might you expect based on this for American culture?

43. Influences on Sexuality: Sex Education
abstinence-only v. comprehensive
goals: encourage the very young to delay sexual activity, reduce teen pregnancy, reduce STIs
abstinence-only – becoming increasingly common in United States (US has the highest rate of teen pregnancy of the developed world)
emphasize that any sexual behavior outside of marriage is harmful to individuals of any age
present contraceptives and condoms only in terms of failure rates
promotes the notion that abstinence is the only effective way to avoid pregnancy and STIs
comprehensive sex education – involves providing students with comprehensive knowledge about sexual behavior, birth control and the use of condoms in protecting against sexually transmitted infections
encourages students to delay sexual activity and practice abstinence

44. A SHORT Time to Ponder
Which type of sex education program do you think would be the most effective? Why?
What kind of sex education did you have in school? Was it adequate? Explain.
In the critical controversy (p. 374), what was the importance of role-playing?

45. Sexual Variations and Disorders
fetishes – an object or activity that arouses sexual interest and desire
erotic materials (pornographic images and film) – NOT A DISTORDER
clothing
physical objects
transvestic fetish – sexual pleasure from wearing clothing of the opposite sex
dressing up as an animal or a baby
sadomasochism – on person (the sadistic partner) gains sexual pleasure from dominating another person (the masochist), who in turn enjoys being dominated
3 principles of a fetish (all must be present)
the individuals are consenting adults
they do not experience personal distress
they are not putting themselves in danger of physical harm or death as a result of their activities

46. Sexual Variations and Disorders
paraphilias – sexual disorders that feature recurrent sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving nonhuman objects; the suffering or humiliation of oneself or one’s partner; or children or other nonconsenting persons
exhibitionism – exposing one’s genitals to another person to gain sexual pleasure
voyeurism – watching another person to experience sexual pleasure
frotteurism – touching and rubbing against a person who has not given consent (example: on a subway train)
sexual sadism (w/o the consent of the partner)
pedophilia
the etiology of paraphilias is unknown
etiology – the causes or significant preceding conditions
classical conditioning? associative learning?

47. Sexual Variations and Disorders
pedophilia – a paraphilia in which an adult or an older adolescent sexually fantasizes about or engages in sexual behavior with individuals who have not reached puberty
more common in men
more likely than other sex offenders to have been abused as children
associated with low self-esteem, poor social skills, low IQ, and a history of head injuries (unconsciousness)
cognitive distortions
minimizing the harm of pedophilic activities
believing that sexual impulses are uncontrollable
thinking that sexual relationships with children are consensual

48. A SHORT Time to Ponder
Each state chooses its own age of consent. At what age do you think it should be set? Why? Try to use psychological evidence to support your answer.

49. Sexual Variations and Disorders
disorders of sexual desire/response
female dysfunction in arousal and orgasm
problems of autonomic nervous system  disrupts engorgement of the labia and lubrication of the vagina
symptoms occur, but no arousal
causes / contributing factors:
sexual abuse
strict religious beliefs
negative sexual attitudes
treatment: androgens and psychotherapy
erectile dysfunction – failure of the penis to become erect
diabetes and age contribute
treatment: Viagra
premature ejaculation – the experience of orgasm before the person wishes it
most common sexual complaint in men under 40

50. Sexuality and Health and Wellness
Sexually Transmitted Infections
bacterial: gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia
viruses:
genital herpes
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)  acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) – destroys the body’s immune system
drug cocktails (6-22 pills a day)
2006 – first pill a day
50% not in treatment
25% do not know

51. Sexuality and Health and Wellness
Safe Sex
abstinence 100% effective
risk reduction with condom use
high success: HPV, gonorrhea, syphilis, Chlamydia and HIV
less success: herpes
“Research has shown that programs to promote safe sex are especially effective if they include the eroticization of condom use—that is, making condoms a part of the sensual experience of foreplay.” p. 379

52. Sexuality and Health and Wellness
Psychological Well-Being
motives for sex
connect intimately with someone (healthy)
related to having fewer sexual partners
linked with enhanced well-being
enhance their own self-esteem (unhealthy)
to gain a partner’s or peers’ approval (unhealthy)
avoid feeling distressed or lonely (unhealthy)
cope with negative feelings 
reduces likelihood of stable relationships
increased likelihood of unsafe activities
linked to decreased well-being
sexual activity is predictor of satisfaction in relationships
sexual activity is a source of pleasure and intimacy throughout the lifespan

53. Chapter Summary Define the terms “sex” and “gender”.
Explain the biological, evolutionary, social-cognitive, and social role accounts of gender development.
Summarize the well-documented gender differences.
Describe the similarities and differences among gays, lesbians, and heterosexuals.
Discuss sexual variations and disorders.
Explain how sexuality affects health and wellness.

54. Chapter Summary Defining Sex and Gender Theories of Gender Development
biological
evolutionary
social-cognitive
social roles
Gender Differences

55. Chapter Summary Sexual Orientation Sexual Behavior Sexual Disorders
influences on sexual orientation
gay and lesbian functioning and relationships
Sexual Behavior
sexual activity
human sexual response pattern
Sexual Disorders
Sexuality and Health and Wellness
sexually transmitted infections