1. General Relativity and the Expanding Universe Allan Johnston 4/4/06

2. Overview The Equivalence Principle The bending of light Gravitational red shift The Precession of Mercury Curved space Black Holes Hubble’s Law Open or closed universe

3. The Equivalence Principle Inertial reference frames are indistinguishable from gravitational reference frames Gravitation is simply a form of an inertial frame of reference This principle shows why Newton’s inertial mass is equivalent to the mass in his Law of Universal Gravitation

4. An Elevator Laboratory Figure 18.1 p. 253 The same applies to light An observer in a frame outside sees the light travel in a straight line An observer inside the elevator sees the light bent towards the floor

5. The Bending of Light In the frame of the observer inside the elevator, the light is bent Based on the equivalence principle it is not just an inertial frame that bends light, but a gravitational one as well

6. A Ball on a Sheet Einstein described gravity as a mass that bends the surface of space-time This model is useful for describing the bending of light by a large mass The bending of light around the sun helped to solidify Einstein’s theory of relativity

7. Einstein is Right Again E=mc 2 allows Einstein to assert that the energy possessed by light gives it mass which allows it to be affected by a gravitational force Future experiments during an eclipse proved him right This opens the door for many other possibilities

8. Gravitational Redshift Light loses energy as it is affected by a gravitational field This change is frequency is related to the distance from and the strength of the gravitational field Run through calculations --p. 258

9. Precession of Mercury The orbit of Mercury was known to change 5600” of arc per century 43” of this were predicted by relativistic mechanics The wobble in the earth’s axis accounts for most of the difference, the other planets account for all but the predicted 43”

10. A Picture of Precession

11. Curved Space Einstein formulated his General Theory of Relativity based on a curved space time Originally Einstein included a repulsion term to accommodate for the static observed position of the planets Friedmann shows later that if the curvature of space is constant then Einstein’s equations hold up without the cosmological constant

12. The Angles of Triangles Constant positive curvature occurs on a sphere while constant negative curvature occurs on a saddle-shaped form This can create triangles with unusual properties

13. Angles continued A triangle on a surface of constant positive curvature will have angles that add up to more than 180° A triangle on a surface of constant negative curvature has angles that add up to less than 180° This is important mainly because it shows how space can be warped based on your concept of the dimensions of space

14. A World Without Pi Consider a rigid disc --a meter stick is placed on the outer edge --as the disc rotates the edge approaches the speed of light --the disc is rigid and cannot contract but the meter stick will --the radius is not in the direction of the acceleration and is not affected

15. Black Holes A black hole occurs when the speed of light is not sufficient to reach the escape velocity from a mass This allows for the existence of dark matter Einstein originally believed that a black hole could not exist He believed that nature would abhor such an event He used the critical volume of the atom to support his claims Eventually it was found that the atom implodes to create the black hole

16. What is inside a Black Hole? We are not really sure In a classical black hole all matter would be destroyed at the singularity by the stretching and squeezing waves Relativistic gravitation must be taken into account because it forbids the absolute At this point time and space become untangled Time is nonexistent

17. What does this mean? As there is no time, space is random The probabilistic froth Any conceivable curvature and space is possible The hole might contain a rip into hyperspace or to another universe While scientists consider that unlikely, they cannot eliminate it as a possibility

18. Time Warps Wormholes Allows large distances to be covered quickly Can only be held open by “exotic material” Must be lined with a negative energy density material to keep from collapsing

19. Time Travel? Imagine a wormhole in this room Imagine one end here and one end on the rocket ship outside The ship travels away at near the speed of light and returns to earth 10 years later To the person on the ship only 12 hours has passed Where does the wormhole lead now?

20. Hubble’s Law The velocity of the recession of stars from earth is proportional to their distance from earth This was determined by observations that almost all distant objects are red shifted This suggests strongly that all objects in the universe are moving away from us and each other

21. What Does This Mean? Our universe is expanding --surface of a balloon We only receive light from those stars that are receding at less than the speed of light Is our universe infinite? --Olbers’ paradox Will our universe continue to expand?

22. Open or Closed? An open universe is one that will continue expanding on forever A closed universe will slow expansion to a stop and then collapse back in on itself Hubble’s Law would seem to suggest that the speed of recession is slowing because older stars are moving faster Possible flaw with Olbers’ paradox in that it assumes the light from more distant stars has reached us

23. An Open or a Closed Universe? As of this time we have no real proof of the infinite expansion or inevitable collapse of the universe There seems to be a definite deceleration due to gravitation but is it enough to stop the expansion? The rate of deceleration is much greater than expected for the amount of visible mass in the universe suggesting dark matter

24. Conclusions Light can be bent by a gravitational field Einstein predicted the bending of light as well as other minor errors in Newtonian mechanics Curved space gives us an entirely new area of possibilities for the universe The expansion of our universe is slowing