1. The Need for Psychological Science

2. The Need for Psychological Science Examples of Faulty Reasoning o Hindsight Bias “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon o Overconfidence The tendency to think we know more than we do o Confirmation bias A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions o False consensus effect The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs o Belief bias The tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning o Belief perseverance The tendency to cling to one’s conceptions after the basis on which they were formed are discredited

3. Research Methods in Psychology o Descriptive Methods o Naturalistic Observation o Case Studies o Surveys o Correlational research (May include survey, interviews, tests, naturalistic observation, longitudinal, cross-sectional studies) o Experimental o Quasi-Experimental (no random assignment to condition)  SLG Distinguish among the various research methods and be able to identify the relative advantages and disadvantages of each

4. Research Methods in Psychology

5. Descriptive Research Methods o Naturalistic observation o Advantages o Avoids observer effect/reactivity (of subject) o Provides ideas for further research o Disadvantages o Potentially time consuming o No control of variables or over extraneous variables o Not replicable o Examples – Piaget, Naturalistic examples, Quasi…Naturalistic  SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation and provide an example of this type of research

6. o Surveys, interviews, questionnaires and tests o Advantages o Relatively inexpensive, easy way of collecting large amounts of data (attitudes, interests, aptitudes) o Assuming a true random sample – generalizable o Disadvantages o Poor construction or administration of questions o Poor sample= unrepresentative (not generalizable) o Measures beliefs, not behaviors o Issues of self-report, memory and honesty o SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of surveys/questionairres and identify an example of this type of research Descriptive Research Methods

7. o Case studies – Of individuals, groups or phenomena o Advantages o Potentially, deeply revealing about individuals o Disadvantages o No experimental control o Sample size extremely small – generalizability? o Potential bias, both subject and experimenter o Examples, Phineas Gage, Freud and Little Hans, H.M. NPRPhineas GageH.M. NPR o SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of case studies and provide an example of this type of research

8. Descriptive Research Methods o Archival Research o Advantages o Enormous amounts of data used to see trends relationships and outcomes o Disadvantages o No control over data collection or if reliable o Examples – Analysis of studies conducted by other researchers, or look at historical data (e.g. the Wild Child) o SLG Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of archival research and provide an example

9. Research Methods o Longitudinal methodExamples? Ads/Disads? o Cross-sectional methodAdvantages? o Cross-cultural methodPurposes?

10. Correlational Studies o Correlational studies look at the degree of relationship between variables and not the effect of one variable on another variable o Correlation DOES NOT equal causation. A relationship may be suggested, but it does not prove that one variable causes the other to change. For example, a correlational study may suggest a relationship between academic success an self- esteem, but it does not mean that academic success causes increases self-esteem… o C&Cheadlines C&Cheadlines o SLG Provide an example of a correlational study and explain why it does not prove causality o Distinguish between causal and correlational claims

11. Correlational Studies ParticGPATV Hours/ week #13.114 #22.410 #32.020 #43.87 #52.225 #63.49 #72.915 #83.213 #93.74 #103.521

12. Correlational Studies o Examples of Positive Correlation o 1. SAT scores and college those with higher SAT scores also have higher grades in college o 2. Happiness and helpfulness as people’s happiness level increases, so does their helpfulness o Examples of Negative Correlation o 1. Education and years in jail people who have more years of education tend to have fewer years in jail o 2. Crying and being held babies held less tend to cry more o SLG Distinguish between positive and negative correlation

13. Scatterplots and Correlation o Correlation coefficient (Pearson-product moment correlation coefficent) measures 3 types o +1.00 = Positive (or direct) o -1.00 = Negative (indirect) o 0 = No correlation o SLG Distinguish between positive, negative and no correlation

14. Correlational Studies - Problems o Illusory correlation detecting relationships where none exist (weather=cold). Other examples? o Third-Variable o Research showed a strong correlation between contraceptive use and number of electrical appliances in the home (Li, 1975). Why? o CorrelationMethodsReviewWS CorrelationMethodsReviewWS SLG Provide examples of problems related to correlational claims

15. Experimentation o Important Terms/Concepts. Most know…must know o hypothesis o independent/dependent variables o operational definitions (quantifiable) o population and random/stratified sample o representative sample o generalizability o experimental and control group (or condition) o random assignment o placebo use and effect o confounding variables o single and double blind procedures o statistical method/significance o replication

16. Define your Population o Population the group researchers wish to study o All humans? o People with depression? o Adolescents? o SLG Distinguish between population and a sample

17. Sampling o Sample a subgroup of your population o In order for results to be generalizable to the population, a sample must be representative (size is key) o Random sample everyone in the population has an equal chance of being in your sample o SLG Explain the relationship among the concepts of random sampling representativeness and generalizability

18. Operational Definitions (for Variables) o Definitions should be clearly defined and quantifiable o Operational definitions reduce subjectivity and expectancy effects and allow for replication o SLG Explain what is meant by an operational definition. Provide an example of an operational definition for both the independent and dependent variable in a given experiment

19. Independent and Dependent Variables o Practice in Identifying Variables Practice in Identifying Variables o IDVDExercises IDVDExercises o SLG Distinguish between independent and dependent variables

20. Confounding (Hidden) Variables o Confounding variables Variables in a study that are not controlled for (outside factors, e.g.?) o Ways to control for confounding variables o Large sample size (more apt to be representative) o Random assignment to groups (control and experimental) o Blinding - Single v. double o Single controls for reactivity (observer effects) o Double controls for expectancy effects (research bias) o Placebos or sham treatment o SLG Explain what is meant by a confounding variable IYOW

21. Experimentation – Other Terminology o Quasi-Experimental design "experiments that have treatments, outcome measures, and experimental units, but do not use random assignment to create the comparisons from which treatment-caused change is inferred." (Cook & Campbell) o A between-subject design Different subjects. This enables random assignment of subjects to conditions o o A within subjects design Same subjects where each is exposed to all of the conditions (uses repeated measures)

22. Research pitfalls o Experimenter Bias o Self-fulfilling prophecy The experimenter arrives at conclusions that support his/her hypotheses based on the need to do so, not data o Halo effects The tendency for people to transfer a positive opinion based on irrelevant information, i.e., people tend to think that more attractive people are also smarter o SLG Provide an explanation for and examples of different kinds of experimenter bias

23. Research pitfalls o Observer effect (aka reactivity) the effect the experimenter’s presence has on subjects o The Hawthorne effect is the tendency for change to occur simply because subjects are aware an experiment is being conducted o Social desirability bias is the tendency for subjects to be able to respond in an experiment in a way that they believe would be most socially desirable o SLG Define and provide an example of different kinds of observer effects

24. Ethics in Experimentation o APA Requirements/Guidelines - Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002) o Human experimentation must cause no harm o Informed consent o Confidentiality o Debriefing o Research institutions must have an Institutional Review Board (IRB) o Role of deception? (Baumrind) o SLG Know, describe and apply the APA ethical guidelines

25. Animal experimentation o Controversies o Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees o Appropriate Beneficial and Caring (ABC) Guidelines o Issues of anthropomorphism, generalization, and anthropocentrism o SLG Explain the controversies related to animal experimentation in psychology