1. Chapter 5 What are General- Purpose Dictionaries Really For? 5.1 The Study of Reference Needs

2. Overview: Ⅰ. 7 questionnaire studies Ⅱ. 4 other types of studies Ⅲ. Studies of the needs of other populations of users Ⅳ. The results of experimental studies of users’ needs

3. The lexicographical tradition:  Old-time: Lexicographers did not ask who the users were and what they wanted. Lexicographers did not ask who the users were and what they wanted. ¤ Now: Lexicographers try to find out who their users are and what they need. Lexicographers try to find out who their users are and what they need.

4. The aim of the study: What do people use general-purpose dictionaries for? The means of the study: Questionnaire

5. 5.1.1 Questionnaire Studies Ⅰ. Barnhart’s study: (pioneering piece of work) 1. meaning 1. meaning 2. spelling 2. spelling 3. pronunciation with synonym studies and lists 3. pronunciation with synonym studies and lists Usage notes and etymologies are far behind. Usage notes and etymologies are far behind.

6. 5.1.1 Questionnaire Studies For their families: 1. meanings 37% 2. spelling 26% 3. other 18% 4. games 17% Others: etymologies, pronunciation, etc. Ⅱ. Quirk’s study: For their studies: For their studies: 1. meanings 67% 1. meanings 67% 2. spelling 26% 2. spelling 26% 3. other 13% 3. other 13% 4. games 7% 4. games 7%

7. 5.1.1 Questionnaire Studies The differences: Families are characterized by the fact that they use general-purpose dictionaries for word games much more often than students. Families are characterized by the fact that they use general-purpose dictionaries for word games much more often than students. This indicates that there might be some sense in designing dictionaries for a category of users called family, as American lexicographers have done for some time. This indicates that there might be some sense in designing dictionaries for a category of users called family, as American lexicographers have done for some time.

8. 5.1.1 Questionnaire Studies Ⅲ. Greenbaum et al’s study: The results were very similar to Quirk’s: The results were very similar to Quirk’s: The general-purpose dictionary is above all seen as an instrument used to find out what words mean, and the users are dissatisfied with the definitions. The general-purpose dictionary is above all seen as an instrument used to find out what words mean, and the users are dissatisfied with the definitions.

9. 5.1.1 Questionnaire Studies Ⅲ. Greenbaum et al.’s study: The differences: The differences: 1. American students seem to use their general- purpose dictionaries more frequently than British students, at least if one believes what they say. 1. American students seem to use their general- purpose dictionaries more frequently than British students, at least if one believes what they say. 2. American students were more interested than British students in spelling. 2. American students were more interested than British students in spelling. 3. There were fewer differences between the use of dictionaries by the students themselves and by their families 3. There were fewer differences between the use of dictionaries by the students themselves and by their families

10. 5.1.1 Questionnaire Studies Ⅳ. Tomaszczyk’s study: Aim: To explore the use of bilingual and monolingual dictionaries in the study of a foreign language. Aim: To explore the use of bilingual and monolingual dictionaries in the study of a foreign language. Conclusion: Subjects found the monolingual dictionary rather difficult to use, particularly the definitions, which were often found difficult to understand. Conclusion: Subjects found the monolingual dictionary rather difficult to use, particularly the definitions, which were often found difficult to understand.

11. Subjects deplored the absence of proper names and of pictorial illustrations. They also wished they could use specialized subject dictionaries, which would be less cumbersome than general-purpose dictionaries. Subjects deplored the absence of proper names and of pictorial illustrations. They also wished they could use specialized subject dictionaries, which would be less cumbersome than general-purpose dictionaries. They were generally more satisfied with their monolingual than with their bilingual dictionaries. They were generally more satisfied with their monolingual than with their bilingual dictionaries. Tomaszczyk’s was the first study to investigate the needs of foreign learners of English. Tomaszczyk’s was the first study to investigate the needs of foreign learners of English. His conclusions are not very different from the conclusions of Barnhart, Quirk, or Greenbaum et al. His conclusions are not very different from the conclusions of Barnhart, Quirk, or Greenbaum et al.

12. 5.1.1 Questionnaire Studies Ⅴ. Baxter’s study: The definitions of monolingual dictionaries, again, were thought to be too difficult. The definitions of monolingual dictionaries, again, were thought to be too difficult. Baxter states in his concluding remarks that the monolingual dictionary is more useful than the bilingual dictionary in the teaching of English as a foreign language, even for relatively elementary learners. Baxter states in his concluding remarks that the monolingual dictionary is more useful than the bilingual dictionary in the teaching of English as a foreign language, even for relatively elementary learners.

13. 5.1.1 Questionnaire Studies Ⅵ. Henry B é joint’s study: Most students owned, used, and appreciated their monolingual dictionaries. But they only bought those that were recommended by their teachers; in fact, they hardly knew any others. Most students owned, used, and appreciated their monolingual dictionaries. But they only bought those that were recommended by their teachers; in fact, they hardly knew any others. Students were generally more satisfied with their monolingual than with their bilingual dictionaries-as in Tomaszczyk’s study. But monolingual dictionaries were not fully used. Students were generally more satisfied with their monolingual than with their bilingual dictionaries-as in Tomaszczyk’s study. But monolingual dictionaries were not fully used. This study owned a pessimistic view of the use of dictionaries by foreign students. It contrasted with Tamaszczyk’s optimism. It was later confirmed by other studies. This study owned a pessimistic view of the use of dictionaries by foreign students. It contrasted with Tamaszczyk’s optimism. It was later confirmed by other studies.

14. 5.1.1 Questionnaire Studies Ⅶ. Herbst and Stein’s study: They noted that most students did not even know that syntactic patterns were coded in their dictionaries. They noted that most students did not even know that syntactic patterns were coded in their dictionaries. Monolingual dictionaries were mostly used for the decoding of written text. Monolingual dictionaries were mostly used for the decoding of written text.

15. It is not surprising that learners’ dictionaries were not found to be much more useful than dictionaries for native speakers: the special information given in learners’ dictionaries to help encoding activities was hardly ever used. It is not surprising that learners’ dictionaries were not found to be much more useful than dictionaries for native speakers: the special information given in learners’ dictionaries to help encoding activities was hardly ever used.

16. 5.1.2 Other types of studies Studies based on questionnaires have been criticized--- not surprisingly, since dialectologists had been through the same experience a few decades before. Studies based on questionnaires have been criticized--- not surprisingly, since dialectologists had been through the same experience a few decades before.

17. 5.1.2 Other types of studies Two arguments: 1. The researcher can never be sure of how much the subjects understand of the questions, and more generally of what sort of response is expected. 1. The researcher can never be sure of how much the subjects understand of the questions, and more generally of what sort of response is expected. 2. The results may represent more what the subjects thought they should answer in the circumstances than their real linguistic usage. 2. The results may represent more what the subjects thought they should answer in the circumstances than their real linguistic usage.

18. 5.1.2 Other types of studies It is well known in linguistics as in other domains, that the thing being observed is modified by the very act of observation. It is well known in linguistics as in other domains, that the thing being observed is modified by the very act of observation. Some have called the phenomenon the “Observer’s Paradox”. Some have called the phenomenon the “Observer’s Paradox”. The ways to eliminate “Observer’s Paradox”: The ways to eliminate “Observer’s Paradox”: One is, using the model of dialectologists and sociolinguists, to devise the study in such a way that what the subjects say they do what they actually do can be compared. One is, using the model of dialectologists and sociolinguists, to devise the study in such a way that what the subjects say they do what they actually do can be compared.

19. 5.1.2 Other types of studies Ⅰ. Bensoussan et al.’s study: same tasks; some had dictionaries and some didn’t same tasks; some had dictionaries and some didn’t Two conclusions: Two conclusions: 1. The students preferred using a bilingual rather than a monolingual dictionary. (not new) 1. The students preferred using a bilingual rather than a monolingual dictionary. (not new) 2. There was no clear correlation between the use of a dictionary and the quality of the results obtained by the students in the tests. (more unexpected) 2. There was no clear correlation between the use of a dictionary and the quality of the results obtained by the students in the tests. (more unexpected)

20. 5.1.2 Other types of studies Ⅱ. Atkins, Lewis, Summers and Whitcut’s study: More than half the subjects owned at least one dictionary, but 60 percent of them had never had any instruction on how to use it, the worst being the French. Bilingual dictionaries were much more often used than monolingual ones. Monolingual dictionaries were mostly used for decoding text. More than half the subjects owned at least one dictionary, but 60 percent of them had never had any instruction on how to use it, the worst being the French. Bilingual dictionaries were much more often used than monolingual ones. Monolingual dictionaries were mostly used for decoding text. This study confirmed Bensoussan et al.’s conclusion that in some cases students do better without a dictinary than with one. This study confirmed Bensoussan et al.’s conclusion that in some cases students do better without a dictinary than with one.

21. 5.1.2 Other types of studies Ⅲ. Bareggi’s study: The subjects were interested in the syntagmatic information provided by learners’ dictionaries. The subjects were interested in the syntagmatic information provided by learners’ dictionaries. whether this signifies a change in the needs of students over time, or a difference between Italian and other students, is not clear. whether this signifies a change in the needs of students over time, or a difference between Italian and other students, is not clear.

22. 5.1.2 Other types of studies Ⅳ. Galisson’s study: This study compared native speakers and foreign learner. This study compared native speakers and foreign learner. Conclusions: Conclusions: 1. Both bilingual and monolingual dictionaries were frequently used and well appreciated, even though they were not fully mastered. 1. Both bilingual and monolingual dictionaries were frequently used and well appreciated, even though they were not fully mastered.

23. 2. Dictionaries were used mostly for decoding text, while encoding activities lagged far behind. 3. The most often sought-after type of information was word meaning, followed by spelling, in the native language as well as in the foreign language. 4. Dictionaries were more often used in the foreign language than in the native language. 5. They were also used more skillfully by the more advanced students. Galisson found evidence for the gap between what the subjects imagined the dictionary to be- the “image”-and what it actually is-the “usage”. Galisson found evidence for the gap between what the subjects imagined the dictionary to be- the “image”-and what it actually is-the “usage”.

24. 5.1.3 Studies of the needs of other populations of users Research done by Longman: Research done by Longman: 1. to look up meaning 1. to look up meaning 2. to check for correct spelling 2. to check for correct spelling Reference to the dictionary for word meanings was not for common words, but ‘hard words’: Reference to the dictionary for word meanings was not for common words, but ‘hard words’: (1) words commonly confused or misused (1) words commonly confused or misused (2) encyclopedic words-form science and technology, politics, economics, etc. (2) encyclopedic words-form science and technology, politics, economics, etc. (3) new words (e.g. spreadsheet) (3) new words (e.g. spreadsheet) (4) rare or obsolete words (abigail, pellucid) (4) rare or obsolete words (abigail, pellucid)

25. The results: Native speakers have the same quasi- exclusive interest for the meaning of hard words as non-native speakers and students in general. Native speakers have the same quasi- exclusive interest for the meaning of hard words as non-native speakers and students in general.

26. 5.1.4 The results of experimental studies of users’ needs The number of subjects were usually small, the statistical treatments often sketchy, and the influence of methodology impossible to evaluate. The conclusions were almost totally predictable. They are virtually always the same, and metalexicographers, in 1992, already seem to have lost some of their faith in the study of user needs. The number of subjects were usually small, the statistical treatments often sketchy, and the influence of methodology impossible to evaluate. The conclusions were almost totally predictable. They are virtually always the same, and metalexicographers, in 1992, already seem to have lost some of their faith in the study of user needs.

27. The results of experimental studies of users’ needs: 1. Dictionaries are used more competently by the more linguistically sophisticated users. (the advanced, the better) 1. Dictionaries are used more competently by the more linguistically sophisticated users. (the advanced, the better) 2. The monolingual dictionary is mostly used for decoding written text. (all categories of users) 2. The monolingual dictionary is mostly used for decoding written text. (all categories of users) 3. The monolingual dictionary is used mostly to find out the meanings of words, particularly rare words. (difficult definitions, native language) 3. The monolingual dictionary is used mostly to find out the meanings of words, particularly rare words. (difficult definitions, native language) 4. Information on encoding is used less than the lexicographers hoped-and probably even less than the experimental results indicate. 4. Information on encoding is used less than the lexicographers hoped-and probably even less than the experimental results indicate. 5. Dictionary users on the whole have little imagination. 5. Dictionary users on the whole have little imagination.

28. The solutions are not obvious. Should dictionaries be changed to satisfy the users? Should we produce simple dictionaries that are just collections of easy-to-read definitions? Or should we try to educated the users so that they can use the increasingly sophisticated dictionaries? The solutions are not obvious. Should dictionaries be changed to satisfy the users? Should we produce simple dictionaries that are just collections of easy-to-read definitions? Or should we try to educated the users so that they can use the increasingly sophisticated dictionaries?