1. Operant Conditioning 1

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3. Operant Conditioning→ a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences –Learning occurs because responses come to be influenced by outcomes that follow them 3

4. Differences between classical and operant conditioning: Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning An organism associates different stimuli that it does not control; associations are formed between stimuli The organism associates its behaviors with consequences Tends to involve reflexive, involuntary responses Tends to involve governed voluntary responses Involves respondent behavior- behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus Involves operant behavior- behavior that operates on the environment producing consequences 4

5. Similarities between classical and operant conditioning Both involve acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination 5

6. Thorndike’s Law of Effect Law of effect→ if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened –Behavior followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely 6

7. B.F. Skinner Demonstrated that organisms tend to repeat those responses that are followed by favorable consequences Operant chamber, or Skinner box→ a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled –Pigeons peck a small disk on the wall for food –Rats press a lever for food 7

8. Rate of key pecking or lever pressing is continuously monitored by a device known as a cumulative recorder Cumulative recorder- creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time 8

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10. Reinforcement contingencies→ the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers Reinforcement→ occurs when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response –Strengthening of a response tendency –Defined in terms of its effects on behavior Terminology 10

11. Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning Acquisition→ refers to the initial stage of learning some new pattern of responding –Responding gradually increases because of reinforcement, possibly through shaping –Shaping→ reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response Used to train animals to do impressive tricks Used when an organism, on its own, does not emit the desired response 11

12. Shaping Shaping used to teach rats to press the lever Skinner trained some pigeons so that they appeared to play ping-pong Priscilla the Fastidious Pig turned on a radio, ate at a kitchen table, put dirt clothes in a hamper, ran a vacuum, and “went shopping” with a shopping cart. 12

13. Extinction→ the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response tendency is no longer followed by a reinforcer –Responding gradually slows and stops after reinforcement is terminated –Resistance to extinction→ occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated Depends on the schedule of reinforcement 13

14. Extinction Extinction begins when previously available reinforcement is stopped –A brief surge in responding is followed by a gradual decline –Resistance to extinction important when Studying doesn’t lead to reinforcement Casino owners want to see in patrons so they continue to gamble even when losing 14

15. Stimulus Control: Generalization and Discrimination Discriminative stimuli→ cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response –When a response is consistently followed by a reinforcer in the presence of a particular stimulus, that stimulus comes to serve as a “signal” indicating that the response is likely to lead to a reinforcer 15

16. Discrimination Examples Pigeons disk pecking may only be reinforced when light turns on –Discriminative stimuli = light Birds learn that hunting for worms is likely to be reinforced after rain –Discriminative stimuli = rain Ask parents for money when they are in a good mood –Discriminative stimuli = good mood 16

17. Stimulus generalization→ an organism’s responding to stimuli other than the original stimulus used in conditioning –Responding increases in the presence of new stimulus that resembles original discriminative stimulus –Example- Cat running into kitchen at the sound of the blender or the can opener Stimulus discrimination→ an organism’s lack of response to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus used in conditioning –Responding does not increase in the presence of new stimulus that resembles original discriminative stimulus –Example- Cat would respond only to the can opener, not the blender..\UltraGet\YouTube\Can opener cat call.mp4..\UltraGet\YouTube\Can opener cat call.mp4 17

18. Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses Positive reinforcement→ occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus. –Examples- Good grades, tasty meals, pay checks, scholarships, promotions, cars, attention, flattery Negative reinforcement→ occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus –Remember: In this case, negative does not mean bad. You want negative reinforcement. 18

19. Negative reinforcement Be careful not to confuse negative reinforcement and punishment!!! –Negative reinforcement increases behavior! –Example- When a rat is in a Skinner box, a moderate shock is delivered. If the rat presses the lever, they are negatively reinforced by having the shock turned off –Example- If you clean to get rid of the mess, take aspirin to relieve a headache,give in to a child’s begging to stop the whining, give in to a roommate or spouse to end an unpleasant argument 19

20. Negative Reinforcement and Avoidance Behavior Escape learning→ an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation –Animals can learn to escape shock by running to an additional compartment –If you leave a party where you were getting picked on by peers Avoidance learning→ an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring –Makes it hard to get rid of phobias –If a light signals shock, animals learn to run to a safe compartment as soon as the light comes on –If you quit going to parties because of your concern about being picked on 20

21. Delayed reinforcement –A favorable outcome is much more likely to strengthen a response if the outcome follows immediately –Longer the delay between the designated response and the delivery of the reinforcer, the more slowly conditioning proceeds 21

22. Conditioned Reinforcement Primary reinforcers→ events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs; unlearned –Food, water, warth, sex, possibly affection expressed through hugging/ close bodily contact Secondary, or conditioned reinforcers→ events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers –Money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, applause, stylish clothes, sports cars 22

23. Schedules of Reinforcement Schedule of reinforcement→ determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer Continuous reinforcement→ every instance of a designed response is reinforced –Fastest acquisition of a response –Often used to shape and establish a new response before moving to more realistic chedules Intermittent, or partial reinforcement→ when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time –Makes a response more resistant to extinction; organisms continue to respond long after removal of reinforcers Occasionally reinforcing a child’s tantrums can make them very durable and difficult to eliminate 23

24. Ratio Schedules Ratio schedules→ require the organism to make the designated response a certain number of times to gain each reinforcer Fixed-ratio (FR) schedules→ reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses –Rat is reinforced for every 10 th lever press –Salesperson receives a bonus for every 4 cars sold –Working on a piece meal basis Variable-ratio (VR) schedule→ the reinforcer is given after a variable number of non-reinforced responses –Rat is reinforced for varying number of lever presses –Slot machines –Fly-fishing 24

25. Interval Schedules Interval schedule→ require a time period to pass between the presentation of reinforcers Fixed-interval (FI) schedule→ the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed –Rat is reinforced for first lever press after a two-minute interval has elapsed and then must wait two minutes before being reinforced again –Checking to see if cookies are done –Paid every two weeks Variable-interval schedule→ reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed –Produces slow, steady responding –A rat is reinforced for the first lever press after a 1 minute interval has elapsed, but the following are 3 minutes, 2 minutes, 4 minutes and so on –Repeatedly dialing a busy number –Checking your phone for an email or text –Regular fishing 25

26. Ratio schedules based on number of responses Interval schedules based on time Ratio schedules produce a higher response rate than interval schedules Variable schedules produce more consistent responding than fixed schedules 26

27. Punishment: Consequences that Weaken Responses Punishment→ occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response –Can trigger strong emotional responses including anxiety, anger and resentment –Physical punishment can often lead to an increase in aggressive behavior –Sometimes disciplinary goals can often be accomplished more effectively by reinforcing desirable behavior than by punishing undesirable behavior 27

28. Effective punishment –Apply punishment swiftly A delay in punishment tends to undermine its impact –Use punishment just severe enough to be effective –Make punishment consistent –Explain the punishment –Minimize dependence on physical punishment 28

29. Ahhhhhhhhh!!!!!! What is wrong with this comic?!?!? 29