1. The legal perspective on the immoral demand and supply of organs Conny Rijken Tilburg Law School

2. Terminology Trafficking or trade in organs Never allowed for financial gain (except for Iran) Article 21 –Prohibition of financial gain The human body and its parts shall not, as such, give rise to financial gain. Trafficking in human beings for the removal of organs Criminal act per se Many countries lack (sufficient) legislation

3. Trafficking or trade in organs Can be legal But illegal: By way of trading the organ, or By way of obtaining the organ The latter case can be trafficking in human beings for the removal of organs

4. THB for the removal of organs Included in the Palermo Protocol In short: recruitment or transfer by means of force for the purpose of exploitation Exploitation includes the removal of organs Note: not the forced removal

5. Example given by COFS Egypt Coalition for Organ Failure Solutions researched organ trafficking in Egypt from Sudanese migrants. Three froms: -Induced consent -Coercion for removing organs -Outright theft

6. Paid donorship Prohibited f.i. by CoE Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine and EU Charter on fundamental rights Pro´s: increase donors, ultimate expression of right to freedom and self-determination Con´s: vulnerable for illegal and criminal practices, and affects most vulnerable in society, diminishes voluntary non-paid donorship

7. Negative consequences of paid donorship Research in Pakistan: donors are those living in serfdom and debt bondage with Zamindars (landowners) Research in India and Iran shows that marginalised people will more easily donate Health consequences of donations underestimated

8. Parallel with prostitution laws in the Netherlands Right to self-determination of the individual, right to freedom, agency of women, right to work Practice: difficult to distinguish voluntary from forced prostitution and organ donation Can people take a well informed balanced decision? Can we expect them to be able to?

9. Conclusion Trade in organs and paid organ donorship is a risky business, difficult to distinguish from criminal practices such as trafficking in human beings for the removal of organs, but certainly vulnerable for such practices.