1. Essentials of Ecology 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院 生物科技學系 生態學 (2008) Essentials of Ecology 3 rd. Ed.

2. 2 Contents Part I: Introduction: Part I: Introduction: 1. Ecology and how to do it ( 簡介 ) 1. Ecology and how to do it ( 簡介 ) 2. Ecology‘s evolutionary backdrop ( 演化背景 ) 2. Ecology‘s evolutionary backdrop ( 演化背景 ) Part II: Conditions and Resources: Part II: Conditions and Resources: 3. Physical conditions and the availability of resources ( 物理情境與資源的供應力 ) 3. Physical conditions and the availability of resources ( 物理情境與資源的供應力 ) 4. Conditions, resources and the world‘s communities ( 情境、資源和世界群落 ) 4. Conditions, resources and the world‘s communities ( 情境、資源和世界群落 ) Part III: Individuals, Populations, Communities and Ecosystems: Part III: Individuals, Populations, Communities and Ecosystems: Part IV: Applied Issues in Ecology: Part IV: Applied Issues in Ecology:

3. 3 Contents Part I: Introduction: Part I: Introduction: Part II: Conditions and Resources: Part II: Conditions and Resources: Part III: Individuals, Populations, Communities and Ecosystems: Part III: Individuals, Populations, Communities and Ecosystems: 5. Birth, death and movement ( 出生、死王和遷移 ) 5. Birth, death and movement ( 出生、死王和遷移 ) 6. Interspecific competition ( 種間競爭 ) 6. Interspecific competition ( 種間競爭 ) 7. Predation, grazing and disease( 掠食、草食和疾病 ) 7. Predation, grazing and disease( 掠食、草食和疾病 ) 8. Evolutionary ecology ( 演化生態學 ) 8. Evolutionary ecology ( 演化生態學 ) 9. From populations to communities ( 族群到群落 ) 9. From populations to communities ( 族群到群落 ) 10. Patterns in species richness ( 物種豐富度 ) 10. Patterns in species richness ( 物種豐富度 ) 11. The flux of energy and matter through ecosystems ( 生態体系的能量與物質流動 ) 11. The flux of energy and matter through ecosystems ( 生態体系的能量與物質流動 ) Part IV: Applied Issues in Ecology: Part IV: Applied Issues in Ecology:

4. Ch. 5 Birth, death and movement 鄭先祐 (Ayo) 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院 生物科技學系 生態學 (2008) Part III: Individuals, Populations, Communities and Ecosystems:

5. 5 Chap.5 Birth, death and movement 5.1 Introduction 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Life cycles 5.2 Life cycles 5.3 Monitoring birth and death: life tables and fecundity schedules 5.3 Monitoring birth and death: life tables and fecundity schedules 5.4 Dispersal and migration 5.4 Dispersal and migration 5.5 The impact of intraspecific competition on populations 5.5 The impact of intraspecific competition on populations 5.6 Life history patterns 5.6 Life history patterns

6. 6 5.1 Introduction What is a population? What is a population? Species, time, space Species, time, space Boundaries are determined more by an investigator’s purpose or convenience. Boundaries are determined more by an investigator’s purpose or convenience. 5.1.1 what is an individual 5.1.1 what is an individual Unitary organisms Unitary organisms Modular organisms, trees, shrubs and herbs, corals, sponges. Modular organisms, trees, shrubs and herbs, corals, sponges. Modular organisms are themselves populations of modules. Modular organisms are themselves populations of modules.

7. 7 Fig. 5.1 Modular plants and animals (a) duckweed( 浮萍 ) and Hydra sp.( 水螅 ) Fig. 5.1 Modular plants and animals (a) duckweed( 浮萍 ) and Hydra sp.( 水螅 )

8. 8 5.1 Introduction 5.1.2 counting individuals, births and deaths 5.1.2 counting individuals, births and deaths Estimates from representative samples. Estimates from representative samples. Mark-recapture methods for estimating population size (Box 5.1 Quantitative aspects) Mark-recapture methods for estimating population size (Box 5.1 Quantitative aspects) 族群調查 (EXP) -- capture-recapture methods () 族群調查 (EXP) -- capture-recapture methods (pdf 檔案 )pdf 檔案

9. 9 5.2 Life cycles 5.2.1 Life cycles and reproduction 5.2.1 Life cycles and reproduction The conflict between maintenance, growth, and reproduction The conflict between maintenance, growth, and reproduction Iteroparous species (breed repeatedly) Iteroparous species (breed repeatedly) Semelparous species (a single reproductive episode) Semelparous species (a single reproductive episode) 5.2.2 Annual life cycles 5.2.2 Annual life cycles 5.2.3 Longer life cycles 5.2.3 Longer life cycles

10. 10 Fig. 5.4 An outline life history for a unitary organism. Fig. 5.4 An outline life history for a unitary organism.

11. 11 Fig. 5.5 Percentage allocation of the resource nitrogen to different structures throughout the annual cycle of the perennial plant Sparaxis grandiflora in South Africa. Fig. 5.5 Percentage allocation of the resource nitrogen to different structures throughout the annual cycle of the perennial plant Sparaxis grandiflora in South Africa.

12. 12 Fig.5.6 Species recovered from the seed bank, from seedlings and from the mature vegetation. Totally there are seven species groups (GR1- GR7) Fig.5.6 Species recovered from the seed bank, from seedlings and from the mature vegetation. Totally there are seven species groups (GR1- GR7) 5.2.2 Annual life cycles

13. 13 A desert in bloom. In desert areas where rainfall is rare and seasonally unpredictable, a dense and spectacular flora of very short-lived annuals commonly develops after rain storms. A desert in bloom. In desert areas where rainfall is rare and seasonally unpredictable, a dense and spectacular flora of very short-lived annuals commonly develops after rain storms. 5.2.2 Annual life cycles

14. 14 Fig. 5.7 (a) (b) an iteroparous species Fig. 5.7 (a) (b) an iteroparous species (c) a semelparous species (c) a semelparous species 5.2.3 Longer Life cycles

15. 15 Fig. 5.8 a life history for a population of great tits. Fig. 5.8 a life history for a population of great tits.

16. 16 Fig. 5.9 The effect of plant age (years) and plant size (as measured by leaf area) on the probability of Rhododendron lapponicum shoots entering their reproductive phase. Fig. 5.9 The effect of plant age (years) and plant size (as measured by leaf area) on the probability of Rhododendron lapponicum shoots entering their reproductive phase.

17. 17 5.3 Monitoring birth and death: life tables and fecundity schedules 5.3.1 Cohort life tables 5.3.1 Cohort life tables An annual life table for a plant, Non- overlapping generations (Table 5.1) An annual life table for a plant, Non- overlapping generations (Table 5.1) A cohort life table for female marmots ( 土撥鼠 ) (Table 5.2) A cohort life table for female marmots ( 土撥鼠 ) (Table 5.2) Logarithmic survivorship curves (Fig. 5.11) Logarithmic survivorship curves (Fig. 5.11) 5.3.2 overlapping generations 5.3.2 overlapping generations 5.3.3 survivorship curves 5.3.3 survivorship curves

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20. 20 Fig. 5.12 Age structures of Acacia burkittii populations at two sites in South Australia. Fig. 5.12 Age structures of Acacia burkittii populations at two sites in South Australia.

21. 21 5.3.3 survivorship curves Fig. 5.13 survivorship curves. Fig. 5.13 survivorship curves.

22. 22 Fig. 5.14 survivorship curves for the sand dune annual plant Erophila verna monitored at three densities. Fig. 5.14 survivorship curves for the sand dune annual plant Erophila verna monitored at three densities.

23. 23 Fig. 5.15 three generalized spatial patterns that may be exhibited by organisms across their habitat. Fig. 5.15 three generalized spatial patterns that may be exhibited by organisms across their habitat.

24. 24 Fig. 5.16 Are aphids ( 蚜蟲 ) distributed evenly, randomly or in an aggregated fashion? It all depends on the spatial scale. Fig. 5.16 Are aphids ( 蚜蟲 ) distributed evenly, randomly or in an aggregated fashion? It all depends on the spatial scale.

25. 25 Fig. 5.17 spread of the Colorado beetle in Europe, 1922-1964. Fig. 5.17 spread of the Colorado beetle in Europe, 1922-1964.

26. 26 Fig. 5.18 The invasion of most of the 116 patches of lowland heath in Dorset, UK by scrub and tree species between 1978 and 1987. Fig. 5.18 The invasion of most of the 116 patches of lowland heath in Dorset, UK by scrub and tree species between 1978 and 1987.

27. 27 Fig. 5.19 density-dependent dispersal (a) the dispersal rate of newly hatched blackfly (b) the percentage of juvenile male barnacle geese. Fig. 5.19 density-dependent dispersal (a) the dispersal rate of newly hatched blackfly (b) the percentage of juvenile male barnacle geese.

28. 28 5.5 intraspecific competition Crowding not density- especially in modular organisms Crowding not density- especially in modular organisms Density-dependent and the carrying capacity Density-dependent and the carrying capacity Population regulation by competition, but not to a single carrying capacity. Population regulation by competition, but not to a single carrying capacity.

29. 29 Fig. 5.21 density- dependent and carrying capacity. Fig. 5.21 density- dependent and carrying capacity.

30. 30 Fig. 5.22 Exponential and S-shaped or sigmoidal increases in the size of a population (N) Fig. 5.22 Exponential and S-shaped or sigmoidal increases in the size of a population (N)

31. 31 Fig. 5.24 Real examples of S-shaped population increase. (a) the bacterium (b) the annual plant (c) willow tree. Fig. 5.24 Real examples of S-shaped population increase. (a) the bacterium (b) the annual plant (c) willow tree.

32. 32 5.6 Life history patterns The cost of reproduction, a life history trade-off. The cost of reproduction, a life history trade-off. r- and K- species, r-K scheme r- and K- species, r-K scheme Fig. 5.28, Fig. 5.28, 5-29) 5-29)

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35. 35 Fig. 5.29 (c) relatively long-lived with relatively delayed reproduction. Fig. 5.29 (c) relatively long-lived with relatively delayed reproduction.

36. 36

37. 37 Alternatives to the r and K continuum Ruderals, competitors, and stress tolerators (Grime 1977 and 1979) Ruderals, competitors, and stress tolerators (Grime 1977 and 1979) Ruderals (botanical term for weed) Ruderals (botanical term for weed) Adapted to cope with habitat disturbances Adapted to cope with habitat disturbances Competitors Competitors Adapted to live in highly competitive but benign environments (e.g., tropics) Adapted to live in highly competitive but benign environments (e.g., tropics) Stress tolerators Stress tolerators Adapted to cope with severe environmental conditions (e.g., salt marsh plants) Adapted to cope with severe environmental conditions (e.g., salt marsh plants) Stress, disturbance and competition triangle Stress, disturbance and competition triangle Figure 5.9 Figure 5.9

38. 38 Fig. 5.9 a model in which stress, disturbance, and competition are the important factors.

39. 39 Fig. 5.9b

40. 40 Questions Explain why an understanding of life history trade-offs is central to an understanding of life history evolution. Explain why an understanding of life history trade-offs is central to an understanding of life history evolution. Explain in the contrasting trade-offs expected to be exhibited by r-selected and K-selected species. Explain in the contrasting trade-offs expected to be exhibited by r-selected and K-selected species.

41. Japalura@hotmail.com Ayo 台南站 http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/http://mail.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/ 國立臺南大學 環境與生態學院 Ayo 院長的個人網站 問題與討論