1. Positivistic versus Naturalistic Inquiry This is a 100 year old debate Is often correlated to research methodology Is a philosophy on the way we think about human phenomenon & research Can be integrated within methodology, but philosophically they are very different Is the foundation for how we design research

2. Positivistic InquiryNaturalistic Inquiry (Constructivism) Quantitative Triangulated Qualitative Solomon Design Blended Designs Post-modern -four group design - use quantitative -pretest-treat-post test & qualitative -research self -pretest-no treat- post test methods -novel sounding -no pre- no treat- post test lacks theory -random group Quasi-Experimental Grounded Theory Phenomenology -validated tools -two of three -theory building - descriptive Exp. controls -Basic Social Process - interpretive - hermeneutic Descriptive Experimental Design - quantitative or Ethnography -random sample qualitative methods -living in the experience -control group -cultural immersion -a treatment given Case Study -single-double cases -In-depth analysis - comparative analysis Action Research Adequate time commitment Collaborative effort Openness to change Quality of data collection and analysis Impact on one’s practice

3. Positivistic InquiryNaturalistic Inquiry (Constructivism) Quantitative Triangulated Qualitative Solomon Design Blended Designs Post-modern Quasi-Experimental Grounded Theory Phenomenology Constant Comparative Analysis Descriptive Experimental Design Ethnography Case Study Scientific Rigors by Design Validity & Reliability (internal-external) Conceptual Framework DevelopedDescriptive Vividness Statistical InferenceMethodological Congruence GeneralizabilityAnalytical Preciseness TemporalityTheoretical Connectedness Selection and BiasHeuristic Relevance Measurement validity / reliabilityTrustworthiness, Credibility, Controlling confoundersand Auditability Appropriate study design for the questionsConfirmability, transferabilityStylistic & Personal Relevance, Heuristic

4. Sample Size by Design Positivistic Inquiry Naturalistic Inquiry (Constructivism) Quantitative Triangulated Qualitative Solomon Design Blended Designs Post-modern Power Analysis 20-40 1 Quasi-Experimental Grounded Theory Phenomenology >40 10-1000 10-saturation (10-30) Descriptive Experimental Design 1-12 Ethnography Power Analysis 1 Case Study 1-2 Action Research ?-100

5. Assumptions of Positivistic Thinking page 1 Reality is singular, tangible, & and can be dissected The researcher and those being studied are independent Time and context- free generalizations are possible Inquiry is value-free value free singular reality Positivistic thinking generalizable independent variables

6. Assumptions of Positivistic Thinking There are real causes or at least high probability of a relationship. We believe we can have independent and dependent variables as separate entities Validity of a design is very critical to results value free singular reality validity Positivistic thinking generalizable cause & effect independent variables

7. Assumptions of Positivistic Thinking page 3 Reliability is based on how the design is reproducible Generalizability is related to good internal validity and reliability with comparable samples Hypothesis testing generalizable value-free Positivistic thinking validity singular reality hypothesis testing reliability cause & effect independent variable

8. Assumptions of Naturalistic Inquiry Realities are multiple, pluralistic, and holistic The researcher cannot really be separated from those being studied and relation- ships are explained hypotheses are time and context bound - they are only working statements researcher & subject connected hypothesis is a focus area multiple realities naturalistic inquiry

9. Assumptions of Naturalistic Inquiry All entities are in a state of mutual simultaneous shaping Inquiry is value- bound Validity is designed into the process Reliability & general- izable are not concepts of value with this thinking researcher & subject connected hypothesis is a focus area Naturalistic inquiry thick description multiple realities inquiry is value bound

10. Differences in Scientific Rigor positivisticnaturalistic Validity Internal and external reliability Hypothesis testing Statistical inferences Independent and dependent variables Variable controls Generalizability Descriptive vividness Methodological congruence Analytical preciseness Theoretical connectedness Heuristic relevance Others

11. Data Collection Difference positivisticnaturalistic Tools surveys, questionnaires objective assessment & identification Measure the dependent variable Convert to numeric symbols Apply statistical inferences to numbers Large sample sizes help with confidence levels Tool it is the investigator by interview, focus groups, & observation Data is subjective and objective. It is collected & not measured Themes or clusters are identified and data is sorted in a theme analysis The themes are supported by participants or experts

12. Differences in Results positivisticnaturalistic Statistical significance for pre- post treatment Statistical correlations & relationships identified Probability of errors & confidence identified Causal relationships The exploration & description of a phenomenon Identification of linkages, relationships, or interpretations based on theory connections Results are themes, clusters of ideas, or theory constructs

13. Positivistic Discussion of Results 250 nurses were surveyed with an 80% response rate or N=200. Questions were rated using the Likert 5 scale. Question 1 had a mean of 4.2 with a S.D. of 0.5 suggesting the nurses had favorable opinions about continuing education. Compared to a 1994 survey asking the same question, there was a statistical difference that was less favorable (mean 3.1, S.D. 0.7, p<.05)

14. Naturalistic Description I sat in the classroom as a peripheral member staying as unobtrusive as possible. The instructor came out from behind her desk, sitting on the edge as she opened with a question that brought all eyes in the room to meet her own eyes. She paused - looked at the eyes of the students. The instructor displayed immediacy from the moment she started the class.

15. Ethics and Research Starts with the study purpose, design, methods of measurement, and subjects Guidelines for all of these It is still a concern today More recent ethical issues are: Fabrication of a study Falsification or forging of data Dishonest manipulation of the design or methods Plagiarism 50% of the top 50 research institutions in US have been investigated for research fraud

16. Ethical Problems in History http://helix.nih.gov:8001/ohsr/mpa/45cfr46.php3 Nazi medical experiments (1933-1945) Tuskegee syphilis study by the USPHS (1932-1972) Willowbrook study (1950-1970) Hepatitis study Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital study with live CA cells in 1960s

17. Ethical Problems in History University –Atomic Energy Government Exp. 18 men and women injected with plutonium to determine body distribution (at the time said to be terminal) 1945-47 20 subjects ages 63-83 given doses of radioactive radium and thorium inj. or oral. 1961-65 64 male inmates at Washington St. Prison had testicular radiation to determine the smallest does to makes someone sterile. 1963-70 125 retarded residents were fed radioactive ir9n and calcium to see if a diet rich in cereal would block the digestion of those two minerals. 1946-56

18. Nuremberg Code-1949 Voluntary consent Must yield fruitful results for society Anticipated results justify the type of experiment Avoids all unnecessary physical-mental injury Cannot do studies that have a known injury or death unless the exp. Physician is a subject Risk does not out weight humanitarian benefit Proper precautions to prevent injury, dis., death Conducted by qualified persons Subjects can always stop the study Researcher must always be ready to stop the study (risk)

19. Declaration of Helsinki-1964-84 Differentiated therapeutic vs. nontherapeutic research Clinical vs. Basic Greater care to protect subjects in nontherapeutic research There must be a strong, independent justification for exposing a healthy vol. to substantial risk The investigator is to protect the health and life of research subjects

20. The Belmont Report Three Ethical Principles Principle of respect for persons Right to self determination and freedom to participate or not Principle of Beneficence Do no harm to others Principle of Justice Treat everyone fairly without discrimination Led to USDHHS Code on Ethics Title 45, Part 46 (45 CFR 46) Office of Human Subjects Research (OHSR) within NIH http://helix.nih.gov:8001/ohsr

21. Institutional Review Board IRB review process 4-6 weeks Consent forms (voluntary subjects) Disclosure forms Confidentiality Compensation disclosure Ethics documented in the research Accountability to rules, regulations, and legal entities

22. The Literature Review Primary Sources Secondary Sources Theoretical literature Empirical literature Integrative reviews (Evidence Based Research) www. clinicalevidence.com/ www.cochrane.org/ www.guideline.gov www.ahcpr.gov/clinic/

23. Definition of a Literature Review A systematic and explicit approach to the identification, retrieval, and bibliographical management of independent studies … locating information … synthesizing … developing guidelines …

24. Purposes of the Lit. Review Facilitate development of the Conceptual Framework by summarizing knowledge Clarify the research topic Clarify the research problem Verify the significance of the research problem Specify the purpose of the study Describe relevant studies or theories Develop definitions of major variables Select a research design, data measurement, data collection & analysis, & interpret findings