1. Defining and studying Learning?

2. What is learning? Definition of learning: ▫Dictionary definition: To gain knowledge, comprehension, or mastery through experience or study. ▫Psychology definition: A relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality that is not due to maturation or typical physical growth, but is due to (reinforced) practice or experience. ▫Which is better description? Why?

3. What is learning? Behavioral potentiality: ▫must be measurable behavior change ▫Direct or indirect measurement? But when must behavior occur? ▫Immediately after learning? Within 1 year? Issue of learning vs. performance- is this an important distinction?

4. What is learning? Must learning result in relatively permanent behavioral change? ▫Define permanent and define behavior ▫Instinct- may emerge at different time periods  Importance of critical periods  Walking- learned or instinct? ▫Memory issues ▫How much cognition is necessary? Can bacteria learn? Definition of behavior: If a dead man can’t do it…….it isn’t behavior!

5. Definitions of learning? Learning: experience, practice or performance?  Reflexes: Are they important for learning? Instincts: imprinting and critical periods ▫Practice vs. Experience ▫Modified definition of learning: learning is  a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potentiality  that results from experience and  cannot be attributed to temporary body states (e.g., fatigue, altered states of consciousness)

6. Definitions of learning? Types of learning: ▫Habituation ▫Sensitization ▫Classical conditioning ▫Instrumental or operant ▫Cognition ▫All are part of a continuum: No actual neat and tidy divisions Learning = survival or our strongest instinct

7. Approaches to study of learning Systematic study ▫Science defined: combines 2 ancient philosophical positions on origins of knowledge: ▫Rationalism: assumption that one gains knowledge by exercising the mind ▫Empiricism: assumption that sensory experience is basis of all knowledge. We typically engage in rational empiricism: ▫exercise or expand the mind via gaining knowledge through our sensory experiences ▫But doesn’t EVERYONE do this? What makes scientists different?

8. Aspects of theory: Scientific theory: two critical aspects ▫Formal aspects: Words and symbols of the theory ▫Empirical aspects: physical events that theory attempts to explain ▫Can you have one aspect without the other? Scientific Law: ▫Consistently observed relationship between two or more classes or events ▫All science seek to discover laws!

9. Goal of Science The goal of science is to: ▫Discover laws ▫Group laws into coherent units ▫These units may become theoretical frameworks In psychology, might add one more goal ▫To improve the condition of humans and animals ▫Clinical applications that emerge from science Coherent grouping has at least 2 functions: ▫Synthesizing function: systematically explains large group of observations (reinforcement) ▫Heuristic function: points to further research (theoretical building blocks).

10. Aspects of theory: Kant characterized science as being either nomothetic or idiographic. Nomothetic : ▫tendency to generalize ▫is typical for the natural sciences. ▫describes effort to derive laws that explain objective phenomena in general. Idiographic ▫tendency to specify ▫is typical for the humanities ▫describes the effort to understand the meaning of contingent, unique, and often subjective phenomena. So: Which approach does Psychology use? (and yes, this is a trick question!).

11. The Principle of Parsimony KISS: Keep it simple, stupid! Principle of economy or Morgan’s Cannon ▫When 2 equally effective theories can explain the same phenomenon, but one explains it more simply and economically, use the simpler explanation. Why is this important?

12. Approaches to study of learning Learning experiments ▫Remember tenets of experiments: IV and DV ▫Arbitrary set ups  What is arbitrary?  We often do it because it is “easy” ▫Techniques:  Lab vs. naturalistic observation  Human vs. animal  Correlation or experimental  Choosing IVs and DVs  Data and interpretations

13. But does science ever change? Kuhn’s views : Paradigms:  a point of view shared by a substantial number of scientists  The school of theory or theoretical school of view  Are schools or paradigms good or bad? Paradigm shifts in normal science: ▫Innovations occur when scientists who use a particular paradigm are consistently confronted with events inconsistent with their point of view ▫Emerges only with great resistance Scientific revolutions: science occurs through paradigm shifts ▫Book suggests that paradigm shifts most applicable in physical sciences ▫Less applicable to social sciences ▫Do you agree?

14. Does science change? Popper’s views: Science often starts with theory, not data collection! ▫Scientific theory = proposed solution to a problem ▫Principle of refutability or Principle of falsification ▫must show that the proposed solution is not correct ▫Einstein’s theory- wonderful theory, but we now know it has wrong solutions Which is better approach: Kuhn or Popper? ▫Kuhn stresses sociological/psychological factors playing strong role in emergence of science and theories ▫Popper stresses logical refutation of problems as playing stronger role ▫Is it really one or the other?

15. How do we evaluate theories? Testability (Falsifiability) ▫theory should make unambiguous predictions that can be tested against the facts. ▫Falsifiability: a good theory is one that, in principle, can be proven wrong ▫is a poor theory if is untestable, or unfalsifiable Simplicity or Parsimony: ▫given two theories that are equal in testability, one that uses fewer hypothetical constructs and assumptions is the preferred theory Generality: ▫theories that deal w/more phenomena with a greater range of oservations are usually judged to better than those w/less Fruitfulness: ▫theories that stimulate further research and further thinking about a particular topic are usually judged to be better Agreement w/data: ▫theories that are supported by data (obviously) are better theories

16. learning theory depends upon: Epistemology: ▫Branch of philosophy that deals with nature of knowledge ▫The study of knowledge Asking and examining answers to several critical questions: ▫What is knowledge? ▫What can we know? ▫What are limits of knowledge? ▫What does it mean to know? ▫What are origins of knowledge?

17. Behaviorism, Science and Behavior Behavior analysis = comprehensive, natural science approach to study of behavior of organisms ▫Determining the controlling and changing factors that affect the behavior of humans and other animals ▫E.g., study of reinforcement  What is a reinforcer: a thing? An activity?  How does it change behavior?  Under what conditions does reinforcement alter behavior? Experimental Analysis of Behavior = natural science approach to understanding behavior REGULATION Applied Behavior Analysis: use of behavior principles to solve practical problems

18. Two (basic) Kinds of Conditioning Reflex = respondent behavior that is elicited by a biologically relevant stimulus (S) that automatically (unlearned) elicits a stereotyped response (R) Operant or Instrumental Conditioning= Involves the regulation of behavior (R) by its consequences (C)

19. Selection as a Causal Process Remember: behavior analysis = study of the behavior of organisms ▫Main organizing principle is evolution of behavior through natural selection ▫Typically, we interpret this as biological (genetic) change ▫Behavior analysis sees this differently: Behavior also evolves through natural selection both on the  Immediate level

20. Selection as a Causal Process Skinner’s principle of Selection by Consequences ▫Behavior is selected by our environment Three levels of this selection: ▫Selection over generations for genes related to survival and reproduction ▫Selection for behavior within the lifetime of an individual organism ▫Selection for behavior patterns in groups of organisms that endure beyond the lifetime of a single individual

21. Selection as a Causal Process Selection by consequences = form of causation Immediate causation: direct cause Remote causation: remote events, such as natural selection, produce causes of behavior change

22. Evolution of Behavior? Yes, behavior evolves! Behavioral flexibility is critical for survival ▫We must adjust to our environment and the changing contingencies within that environment This allows for behavior change that occurs on all three of Skinner’s levels ▫Thus: some behavior is genetic, some is cultural, some is learned by the individual. ▫Suggest biology will be important for behavior analysis! ▫Operants are selected by their consequences: (Huh?)  Your responses are selected by the consequences to that behavior  E.g., greetings: Say “hi” to someone.  They smile and say hi back  They frown and flip you off  Your response will differ to these two consequences.  If you are continually punished for saying hi- you will stop  If you are continually reinforced for saying hi- you will keep saying hi!

23. Selection of Behavior occurs on Cultural Level as well Don’t discuss this as often! Groups of people are shaped by their consequences. Culture = conditions, events, stimuli arranged by other organisms that regulate others of those organisms ▫Dress codes; language; social norms ▫Most come about by operant conditioning ▫Occurs in animals and humans Think about all the cultural norms that you have learned over the years- what contingencies control those behaviors?

24. So….in summary Theories of learning are: ▫Scientific theories based on coherent units that have been grouped into meaningful groupings ▫These theories rely on systematic observations based on rational empiricism The theories attempt to describe ▫Where behavior emerges from ▫How behavior changes and what variables invoke such changes ▫What purpose the behavior serves for the organism ▫Both immediate and remote causation This allows us to ▫Predict and manipulate behavior of other organisms and even ourselves ▫We can use these predictive models for improving the human and animal conditions.