1. Sustaining Biodiversity: The Species Approach Chapter 9

2. Core Case Study: The Passenger Pigeon: Gone Forever  Passenger pigeon hunted to extinction by 1900  Commercial hunters used a "stool pigeon”  Archeological record shows five mass extinctions  Human activities: hastening more extinctions?

3. maxwaugh.com newsrealblog.com

4. 9-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Premature Extinction of Species?  Concept 9-1A We are degrading and destroying biodiversity in many parts of the world, and these threats are increasing.  Concept 9-1B Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster than they were before modern humans arrived on the earth (the background rate), and by the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected to be 10,000 times the background rate.

5. Human Activities Are Destroying and Degrading Biodiversity  Human activity has disturbed at least half of the earth’s land surface Fills in wetlands Converts grasslands and forests to crop fields and urban areas  Degraded aquatic biodiversity  Overall: Habitat Destruction

6. Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply  Background extinction- continuous low level extinction  Extinction rate - % or # of species that go extinct w/i a certain time period  Mass extinction: - extinction of many species (50- 95%) over short period of time; causes?  Levels of species extinction Local extinction – gone from some habitats but not all Ecological extinction – not enough to play its ecological role Biological extinction – gone forever

7. Some Human Activities Cause Premature Extinctions; the Pace Is Speeding Up (1)  Premature extinctions due to Habitat destruction Overhunting Invasive Species Clearing of the Amazon rainforest in Rondonia in August of 2009. One of the most deforested parts of the Amazon rainforest lies within the state of Rondonia in Brazil. The loss of the rainforest is primarily due to human activities such as raising crops and livestock. Unfortunately, although these activities have short-term benefits to people, over time, the loss of the rainforest can lead to the extinction of plants and animals as well as contribute to global climate change. http://serc.carleton.edu/eyesinthesky2/week11/using_imageJ_detect_change.html

8.  Conservative estimates of extinction = 0.01-1.0% Growth of human population will increase this loss Rates are higher where there are more endangered species Tropical forests and coral reefs, wetlands and estuaries—sites of new species—being destroyed  Speciation crisis We may be limiting rate of speciation for some species We may be increasing speciation for rapidly reproducing opportunists – weeds, rodents, insects Some Human Activities Cause Premature Extinctions; the Pace Is Speeding Up (2)

9. Animal Species Prematurely Extinct Due to Human Activities

10. Effects of a 0.1% Extinction Rate

11. Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms  Endangered species – so few individuals that species could become extinct over all or most of its range  Threatened species, vulnerable species; still abundant in natural range but #’s declining & may become endangered Characteristics of such species World Conservation Union Red Lists www.iucnredlist.org

12. Endangered Natural Capital: Species Threatened with Premature Extinction Endangered natural capital: some species that are endangered or threatened with premature extinction largely because of human activities. Almost 30,000 of the world’s species and roughly 1,300 of those in the United States are officially listed as being in danger of becoming extinct. Most biologists believe the actual number of species at risk is much larger.

13. Fig. 9-5, p. 188 Stepped Art Fixed migratory patterns Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtle Feeds at high trophic level Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear Narrow distribution Elephant seal, desert pupfish Commercially valuable Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds Low reproductive rate (K-strategist) Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros CharacteristicExamples Rare African violet, some orchids Large territories California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther Specialized niche Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite

14. Percentage of Various Species Threatened with Premature Extinction

15. Science Focus: Estimating Extinction Rates Is Not Easy  Three problems Hard to document due to length of time Only 1.8 million species identified Little known about nature and ecological roles of species identified  Document little changes in DNA  Use species–area relationship – observe how the # of species present increases with size of an area  Mathematical models

16. 9-2 Why Should We Care about Preventing Premature Species Extinction?  Concept 9-2 We should prevent the premature extinction of wild species because of the economic and ecological services they provide and because they have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us.

17. Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital  Instrumental value Use value – economic goods & services Ecotourism: wildlife tourism Genetic information 2005 UN University report: 62% of all cancer drugs derived from bioprospectors Nonuse value Existence value Aesthetic value Bequest value  Ecological value- key to ecosystem functions of energy flow, nutrient cycling, and population control

18. Natural Capital Degradation: Endangered Orangutans in a Tropical Forest

19. Natural Capital: Nature’s Pharmacy Natural capital: nature’s pharmacy. Parts of these and a number of other plant and animal species (many of them found in tropical forests) are used to treat a variety of human ailments and diseases. Nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms. About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer- fighting chemicals come from tropical forests. Despite their economic and health potential, fewer than 1% of the estimated 125,000 flowering plant species in tropical forests (and a mere 1,100 of the world’s 260,000 known plant species) have been examined for their medicinal properties. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, they can usually be produced synthetically. Many of these tropical plant species are likely to become extinct before we can study them.

20. Endangered Scarlet Macaw is a Source of Beauty and Pleasure

21. Science Focus: Using DNA to Reduce Illegal Killing of Elephants for Their Ivory  1989 international treaty against poaching elephants  Poaching on the rise  Track area of poaching through DNA analysis of elephants  Elephants damaging areas of South Africa: Should they be culled?

22. Are We Ethically Obligated to Prevent Premature Extinction?  Intrinsic value: existence value – species have an inherent right to exist  Edward O. Wilson: biophilia phenomenon – belief that humans have an inherent genetic kinship w/ natural world We prefer the outdoors & wildlife over urban env.  Biophobia – fear of certain forms of wildlife

23. Science Focus: Why Should We Care about Bats?  Vulnerable to extinction Slow to reproduce Human destruction of habitats  Important ecological roles Feed on crop-damaging nocturnal insects Pollen-eaters Fruit-eaters  Unwarranted fears of bats Disease Killing Millions of Bats - YouTube

24. ABC Video: Bachelor pad at the zoo

25. ABC Video: Hsing Hsing dies

26. ABC Video: Penguin rescue

27. 9-3 How do Humans Accelerate Species Extinction?  Concept 9-3 The greatest threats to any species are (in order) loss or degradation of its habitat, harmful invasive species, human population growth, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation.

28. Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO  Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation  Invasive (nonnative) species  Population and resource use growth  Pollution  Climate change  Overexploitation

29. Causes of Depletion and Premature Extinction of World Species

30. Natural Capital Degradation: Reduction in the Ranges of Four Wildlife Species Natural capital degradation: reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of habitat loss and hunting. What will happen to these and millions of other species when the world’s human population doubles and per capita resource consumption rises sharply in the next few decades?

31. Science Focus: Studying the Effects of Forest Fragmentation on Old-Growth Trees  Tropical Biologist Bill Laurance, et al.  How large must a forest fragment be in order to prevent the loss of rare trees?

32. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (1)  Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds’ breeding habitats Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads, and development  Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative species Eat the birds – cats, rats, snakes

33. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (2)  Seabirds caught and drown in fishing equipment  Migrating birds fly into power lines, communication towers, and skyscrapers  Other threats Oil spills Pesticides Herbicides Ingestion of toxic lead shotgun pellets

34. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (3)  Greatest new threat: Climate change  Environmental indicators Live in every climate & biome Respond quickly to env changes in their habitat Relatively easy to track and count  Economic and ecological services

35. Distribution of Bird Species in North America and Latin America

36. The Ten Most Threatened Song Birds in the United States The 10 most threatened species of U.S. songbirds. Most of these species are vulnerable because of habitat loss and fragmentation from human activities. An estimated 12% of the world’s known bird species may face premature extinction due mostly to human activities during this century. (Data from National Audubon Society)

37. Science Focus: Vultures, Wild Dogs, and Rabies: Unexpected Scientific Connections  Vultures poisoned from diclofenac in cow carcasses  More wild dogs eating the cow carcasses  More rabies spreading to people

38. Some Deliberately Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems  Most species introductions are beneficial Food Shelter Medicine Aesthetic enjoyment  Nonnative species may have no natural Predators Competitors Parasites Pathogens

39. Fig. 9-14a, p. 199 Some of the more than 7,100 harmful invasive (nonnative) species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States.

40. Fig. 9-14b, p. 199

41. Case Study: The Kudzu Vine  Imported from Japan in the 1930s in an attempt to control soil erosion  “ The vine that ate the South”  Could there be benefits of kudzu? Powdered kudzu can lessen desire for alcohol Almost every part of plant edible Could be used instead of trees as fiber source for paper

42. Kudzu Taking Over an Abandoned House in Mississippi, U.S.

43. Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Also Disrupt Ecosystems  Argentina fire ant: 1930s Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened conditions Also eliminated competitors Made them pesticide resistant  Burmese python in Florida

44. Argentina Fire Ant Accidentally Introduced into Mobile, Alabama, U.S.

45. Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce Threats from Invasive Species  Prevent them from becoming established  Learn the characteristics of the species  Set up research programs  Try to find natural ways to control them

46. Characteristics of Invader Species and Ecosystems Vulnerable to Invading Species

47. What Can You Do? Controlling Invasive Species

48. Other Causes of Species Extinction (1)  Population growth  Overconsumption  Pollution  Climate change

49. Other Causes of Species Extinction (2)  Pesticides DDT: Banned in the U.S. in 1972  Bioaccumulation  Biomagnification Biomagnification! - YouTube

50. Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification Bioaccumulation and biomagnification. DDT is a fat-soluble chemical that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT can be biologically magnified in the bodies of animals at each higher trophic level. The concentration of DDT in the fatty tissues of organisms was biomagnified about 10 million times in this food chain in an estuary near Long Island Sound in the U.S. state of New York. If each phytoplankton organism takes up from the water and retains one unit of DDT, a small fish eating thousands of zooplankton (which feed on the phytoplankton) will store thousands of units of DDT in its fatty tissue. Each large fish that eats 10 of the smaller fish will ingest and store tens of thousands of units, and each bird (or human) that eats several large fish will ingest hundreds of thousands of units. Dots represent DDT. Question: How does this story demonstrate the value of pollution prevention?

51. Case Study: Where Have All the Honeybees Gone?  Honeybees responsible for 80% of insect- pollinated plants  Dying due to? Pesticides Parasites Bee colony collapse syndrome wataugaces.blogspot.com

52. Case Study: Polar Bears and Global Warming  Environmental impact on polar bears Less summer sea ice PCBs and DDT  2007: Threatened species list

53. Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity  Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants Animal parts Pets Plants for landscaping and enjoyment  Prevention: research and education Tiger bones in sesame oil for illegal sale in Myanmar market, folk medicine. Illegal Cambodian market with baby Macaques, adult Porcupine, and Crocodile skulls. Robert Fournier

54. Individuals Matter: Jane Goodall  Primatologist and anthropologist  45 years understanding and protecting chimpanzees Chimps have tool- making skills

55. Rising Demand for Bush Meat Threatens Some African Species  Indigenous people sustained by bush meat  More hunters leading to local extinction of some wild animals

56. Animation: Humans affect biodiversity

57. Active Figure: Habitat loss and fragmentation

58. Video: Bird species and birdsongs

59. 9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (1)  Concept 9-4A We can use existing environmental laws and treaties and work to enact new laws designed to prevent species extinction and protect overall biodiversity.  Concept 9-4B We can help to prevent species extinction by creating and maintaining wildlife refuges, gene banks, botanical gardens, zoos, and aquariums.

60. 9-4 How Can We Protect Wild Species from Premature Extinction? (2)  Concept 9-4C According to the precautionary principle, we should take measures to prevent or reduce harm to the environment and to human health, even if some of the cause-and- effect relationships have not been fully established, scientifically.

61. International Treaties Help to Protect Species  1975: Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) Signed by 172 countries Bans hunting, capturing, & selling of threatened or endangered species Enforcement varies by country & difficult  Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD) Focuses on ecosystems Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.) No enforcement mechanisms

62. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (1)  Endangered Species Act (ESA): 1973 and later amended in 1982, 1983, and 1985 National Marine Fisheries Service U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services  Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad 1,350 currently on the list  Hot Spots  Habitat Conservation Plan (HCP) colony

63. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (2)  Mixed reviews of the ESA Weaken it Repeal it Modify it Strengthen it Simplify it Streamline it

64. Confiscated Products Made from Endangered Species

65. Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (1)  Species listed only when serious danger of extinction  Takes decades for most species to become endangered or extinct  More than half of the species listed are stable or improving  Budget has been small

66. Science Focus: Accomplishments of the Endangered Species Act (2)  Suggested changes to ESA Increase the budget Develop recovery plans more quickly Establish a core of the endangered organism’s survival habitat

67. We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas  1903: Theodore Roosevelt – established 1 st US Federal Wildlife Refuge at Pelican Island Florida  Now there are 547 refuges  Wildlife refuges Most are wetland sanctuaries More needed for endangered plants Could abandoned military lands be used for wildlife habitats?

68. Gene Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species  Gene or seed banks Preserve genetic material of endangered plants  Botanical gardens and arboreta Living plants  Farms to raise organisms for commercial sale

69. Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (1)  Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species Egg pulling Captive breeding Artificial insemination Embryo transfer Use of incubators Cross-fostering

70. Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (2)  Limited space and funds  Critics say these facilities are prisons for the organisms

71. What Can You Do? Protecting Species

72. Case Study: Trying to Save the California Condor  Largest North American bird  Nearly extinct Birds captured and breed in captivity  By 2007, 135 released into the wild Threatened by lead poisoning (ammunition left in animal carcasses or gut piles)

73. The Precautionary Principle  Species: primary components of biodiversity  Preservation of species  Preservation of ecosystems