1. Memory Chapter 8

2. Memory  Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time.  It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

3. Information Processing  The Atkinson-Schiffrin three stage model of memory includes; 1)Sensory Memory, 2)Short-Term Memory, 3)Long- Term Memory

4. Modifications to the 3 Stage Model  Some information skips the first two stages and enters long term memory automatically.  Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.  Working Memory – a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

5. Encoding: Getting Information In  How We Encode  Some information (your route to school) is automatically processed.  However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell phone number) requires attention and effort.

6. Automatic Processing  We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following.  Space – while reading a book, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.  Time – we unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.  Frequency – you effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

7. Effortful Processing  Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.

8. Rehearsal  Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.  Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables  TUV  OF  GEK  XOZ

9. Rehearsal  The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day #1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day #2.

10. Memory Effects  Spacing Effect – we retain information better when we rehearse over time.  Serial Position Effect – when you recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

11. What We Encode  Encoding by Meaning  Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine.  Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

12. What We Encode  Visual Encoding  Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.  Showing adverse effects of smoking may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

13. Mnemonics  Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.  Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory.  Remembering the Planets

14. Organizing Information for Encoding  Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories.  Chunking  Organizing items into familiar manageable unit  Phone Numbers 412-749-6000  HOMES – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior  Hierarchies

15. Storage: Retaining Information  Sensory Memory – the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information.  Short-Term Memory – activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing.  Working Memory – a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.  Long-Term Memory – the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

16. Sensory Memories  The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long

17. Sensory Memory  The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss. 20 40 60 80 Percent Recognized 0.15 0.300.50 1.00 Time (Seconds)

18. Working Memory  The new name for short-term memory.  Has a limited capacity of 7+/- 2 items.  Duration of about 20 seconds

19. Let’s Test Your Capacity  I’m going to show you a list of letters for 20 seconds.  Let’s see how many you can remember.  Ready…

20. MUTGIKTLRSYP

21. Capacity  Was your total 7 plus or minus 2?

22. Chunking  Chunking – organizing items into familiar, manageable units, this often occurs automatically.  F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M  FBI – TWA – CIA – IBM

23. Chunking  Try this one.  Ready…

24. Chunking  5934794397

25. Duration  Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating an individual’s rehearsal.  The duration of working memory is about 20 seconds.

26. Long-Term Memory  Essentially has unlimited storage capacity.  The Clark’s Nutcracker can hide, then later locate 6,000 buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

27. Feats of Memory

28. Information Processing  Encoding – the process of information into the memory system.  Storage – the retention of encoded information over time.  Retrieval – the process of getting information out of memory storage.

29. Memory Stores

30. Storing Memories in the Brain  Loftus (1980) reviewed previous research data showing, through brain stimulation, that memories were etched into the brain and found that only a handful of brain stimulated patients reported flashbacks.  Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that even after removing parts of the brain, the animals retain partial memory of the maze.  Kandel & Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning.

31. Synaptic Changes  Long-Term Potentiation – refers to synaptic enhancement after learning.  An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses.

32. Stress Hormones & Memory  Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.  Flashbulb Memories - clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events.

33. Amygdala- 2 emotion processing clusters. Boost activity and proteins in the memory forming areas.

35. Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories  Explicit Memory – refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.  Implicit Memory – involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what he/she knows.  *Amnesia and the tack.

36. Implicit & Explicit Memory

37. Hippocampus  Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories.

38. Anterograde Amnesia  After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. No New Memories Memory IntactSurgery *What does his memory consist of now?

39. Implicit Memory  HM is unable to make new memories that are explicit (declarative), but he can form new memories that are implicit (procedural).  HM learned the Tower of Hanoi game after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game. C B A

40. Cerebellum  Cerebellum – a neural center in the rear of the brain that processes implicit memories.  Amnesia Patient and the tack.  Damage to the Cerebellum eliminates learned reflexes. *Activity

41. Measures of Memory-Recognition  In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices.  A multiple choice test requires recognition. 1. Name the Capital of France. 1. Brussels 2. Rome 3. London 4. Paris

42. Measures of Memory- Recall  In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort.  A fill-in-the-blank question requires recall. 1. The capital of France is ________.

43. Famous People Slides

44. Measures of Memory- Relearning  In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time. List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 10 trials to learn this list 1 day later List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 5 trials to learn the list

45. Retrieval Cues  Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.  Fire  Smell  Smoke  Heat FIRE TRUCK  Truck  Red  Water  Hose

46. Priming- awakening associations  Say these letters out loud S-H-O-P  What do you do at the mall?  What do you do at a green light?

47. Priming  To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it.

48. Context Effects  Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land.

49. Context Effects  After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants most strongly respond when retested in the same context rather than in a different context.

50. Deja Vu  Deju Vu means “I’ve experienced this before.”  Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

51. Moods & Memories  We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current moods (state-dependent memory).  Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.

52. Vegetables 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Fruits 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Teachers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. List

53. Vegetables FruitsTeachers Alphabetical Order

54. Compare lists  Does your first list compare to your ranking list?  Typically the things that interest you the most will be the first to come to your mind.

55. Forgetting  An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.  We cannot remember what we do not encode.

56. Storage Decay  Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay.  The Forgetting Curve

57. Why don’t we Retain Spanish  Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of forgetting and retaining over 50 years.

58. Retrieval Failure  Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.  Tip of the tongue forgetting is a retrieval failure.  Given a cue – What makes blood cells red?  The subject says – The word begins with H (Hemoglobin)

59. Interference  Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information.

60. Retroactive Interference  Retroactive Interference – the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.  Sleep prevents retroactive interference, therefore, sleeping leads to better recall.

61. Proactive Interference  Proactive Interference – the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

62. Motivated Forgetting  Motivated Forgetting – people unknowingly revise their memories.  Repression – a defense mechanism that banishes anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Sigmund Freud

63. Why do we Forget?  Forgetting can occur at any memory stage.  We filter, alter, or lose much information during these stages.

64. Memory Construction  While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent.  Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.  Let’s Try It…

65. Depiction of an Accident

66. Misinformation  Group A – How fast were the cars going when they HIT each other?  Group B – How fast were the cars going when the SMASHED INTO each other?

67. Memory Construction  A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass?  Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

68. Source Amnesia  Source Amnesia – attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined.  Misatribution

69. Children’s Eyewitness Recall  Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if leading questions are posed.  However, if cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the accuracy of their recall increases.  In cases of sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower percentage of abuse.  Are memories of abuse constructed?  Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood sexual abuse results in repressed memories.  However, other psychologists question such beliefs and think that such memories may be constructed.

70. Constructed Memories  Loftus’ research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.  Improving Memories  Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.  Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.  Make material personally meaningful.  Use mnemonic devices.  Activate retrieval cues – mental recreation.  Recall events while they are fresh.  Minimize interference.