1. ... an Anthropological Perspective WARFARE...

2. WARFARE A constant cannot explain a variable. Proximate vs. Ultimate cause Positive vs. Negative feedback systems Resource Competition * * * * * Infrastructure  Structure  Superstructure Resource  Conflict  Male Supremacy Competition Warfare Complex and Alliances

3. Scale and Intensity of Warfare

4. Warfare Conflict Competition Population / Resources

6. Chimpanzee Warfare

7. 1.In 1968, Jane Goodall stopped feeding bananas to the Chimps at Gombe. 2.Chimps gradually split into two separate groups: the larger Kasakela Community to the north. the slightly smaller group of about a dozen chimps that moved south to the Kahama Valley. 3.By 1972, the Kahana group had become a completely separate community. 4.At about the same time, parties of Kasakela males began making repeated forays south.

8. Chimpanzee Warfare (cont.): 5.Early in 1974, a gang of 5 Kasakela chimps from the northern group killed a single male from the southern group. --He was never seen again. 6.One month later, 3 Kasakela males caught one of the prime Kahana males and severely beat him. --He was never seen again. 7.Later that year, 5 Kasakela males attacked Goliath (a Kahana male) and severely beat him. --He was never found again.

9. Chimpanzee Warfare (cont.): 8.In 1975, 4 Kasakela males caught an old female, named Madam Bee and beat her until she was inert. She died 5 days after the attack. Her daughter, Honey Bee, cared for her until she died. 9.Early in 1977, several males from the northern Kasakela group attacked and killed Charlie, a southern Kahanna male. 10.Late in 1977, 5 Kasakela males from the north pounced on Sniff, the sole remaining Kahanna male, and left him with a broken leg and bleeding from countless wounds.

10. Significant Features of Chimpanzee Warfare: 1.Gradual extermination of one community by another. 2.Raids occurred over a period of 6 years. 3.Northern males were not simply defending territory. --most attacks were deep into the southern territory. 4.The entire Kasakela group now travels, feeds and sleeps freely throughout the southern area.

11. Ecological Context of Chimpanzee Warfare: 1.Cannibalism: a.Passion and Pom (ate 5 of the 6 babies born in one year and may have eaten as many as 10 babies over a 4-year period). b.Bodies of at least 3 males never found. 2.Hunting: a.Chimps are omnivorous and feed individually. b.Cooperation occurs only during hunting. --mostly baboons and small antelope. c.Food sharing occurs only with meat d.30 chimps at Gombe made about 40 kills per year. --about one kill every 9 days.

12. Ecological Context of Chimpanzee Warfare (cont.): 3.Tool Use: a.termite sticks nutritional value of insects made for future use b.sponges c.toilet paper d.nests

14. Ecological Context of Chimpanzee Warfare (cont.): 4.Comparison of Gombe Chimps with Budongo Chimps. a.Tool use found only at Gombe. b.Hunting and food sharing found only at Gombe. c.Cannibalism found only at Gombe. d.Warfare found only at Gombe. 5.Population Pressure a.20 square miles needed to support 1 chimp at Gombe b.Budongo rain forest supports 17 chimps in 1 square mile. c. Budongo forest can support about 300 times as many chimps per square mile as Gombe.

15. “Well, well --another blonde hair.... Conducting more ‘research’ with that Jane Goodall Tramp?”

16. Segmentary Lineage Organization Tribe Clans Maximal Lineages Minimal Lineages

17. Lineage Membership and Residence a b c d ef g h

18. Segmentary Lineage and Political Expansion * * * Systems expand, not necessarily people

19. Somali Expansion in the Horn of Africa Ethiopia And Somalia

20. Yanomamo Warfare

21. YANOMAMO WARFARE A constant cannot explain a variable. Proximate vs. Ultimate cause Positive vs. Negative feedback systems Resource Competition Protein Scarcity vs. Protein Deficiancy * * * * * Infrastructure  Structure  Superstructure Resource  Conflict  Weiteri Complex Competition Warfare and Alliances

22. Chagnon vs. Harris Causes of Yanomamo Warfare Chagnon:--Fighting over Women --”We like meat, but we like women better.” Harris:--Protein Scarcity --Mechanism of Population Control --Male Supremacy Complex --female infanticide

23. Chagnon vs. Harris Problems with Their Explanations Chagnon:--Female shortage created by Yanomamo themselves. --Only raid villages for women with which raiding already exists. (Warfare, therefore, not explained.) --proximate explanation -- emic explanation Harris:--Protein Scarcity vs. Protein Deficiency (Big Mac) --Yanomamo Shamatari population increase -- from 200 to 2,000 people, 1900 – 1970 -- 1,000% increase over 70 years = 14% increase per year

24. Evidence of Protein Scarcity 1.Five-day hunting expeditions with no success. 2.Primary game animal: Monkeys and other solitary animals 3.Lower protein consumption a. less than other Amazonian Indians. b. Less than the Dobe Ju/’hoansi 4.Reliance on insects for food. (cost/benefit) 5.Evidence of recent adaptation a. Boil bananas only b. Fish only with poison c. Poorly constructed canoes

25. Amazonian Indians Protein Consumption

27. Alliance Spiral Warfare Spiral Nomohoni Genearalized Reciprocal Reciprocity Woman Exchange Raid The Feast Spear Fights Balanced Mutual Feasting Reciprocity Ax Fights Club Fights Side-Slapping Duels Negative Sporadic and Chest-Pounding Duels Reciprocity Reciprocal Trading Yanomamo Politics: Alliance vs. Warfare

28. House Temperature Decreases Furnace Restores House Temperature Negative Feedback System

29. Neutron Bomb Positive Feedback System M.I.R.V. I.C.B.M. Hydrogen Bomb Atomic Bomb

30. Yanomamo Positive-Feedback System

31. Population Pressure Central Villages Peripheral Villages Larger Villages Smaller Villages 40 – 250 25 - 100 Villages Closer Villages Dispersed higher density lower density Warfare Constant Raiding less Frequent Patanowa-teri raided some villages not involved 25 times in one year in raids for over 5 years Alliance System elaborate absent

32. Population Pressure (cont.) Central VillagesPeripheral Villages HeadmanHeadman greater authority little authority during warfare Cultivation Cultivation more importantless important Fighting Fighting more elaborate less elaborate Weiteri Complex more pronounced less pronounced

33. Population Pressure (cont.) Central VillagesPeripheral Villages Female Infanticide Female Infanticide greater less M/F M/F 0-14: 157 / 100 0-14: 121 / 100 all ages: 130 / 100 all ages: 115 / 100 Polyandry Polyandry absent practiced sexual liaisons is polyandry and sexual primary source of liaisons institutionalized conflict in village

34. Yanomamo Village Expansion

35. Yanomamo Sociopolitical Evolution

36. Plains Indian Warfare

37. Explanation: 1.Plains Indian subsistence behavior, social organization and warfare evolved as predictable outcomes of changes in demography, population-resource relations and labor requirements, as well as increasing resource competition. 2.The evolution of Plains Indian ecology and warfare constituted a positive-feedback system resulting from the infusion of new subsistence technologies and a new productive relationship between Indians and resources.

38. Impact of the Horse and Gun on Bison Hunting: 1.Changed the spatial relationship between Indians and bison 2.Increased size of hunting territory 3.Increased the speed and effectiveness of the buffalo hunt 4.Increased reliability of hunting 5.Reduced per capita labor costs (cost/benefit) 6.Individualized bison hunting 7.Industrialized the hunt

39. Impact of the Hide Trade on Bison Hunting: 1.Changed Population/Resource (P/R) relationship between Indians and bison 2.Shift from subsistence to commercial economy 3.Individual male Indians became self-employed entrepreneurs 4.Producers on the margins of an expanding global economy

40. Infrastructural Changes: 1.Increased immigration onto the Plains 2.Dramatic increase in the size of the Plains Indian Population 3. Precipitous decline in the size of the bison population. P opulation /R esources

41. Indian Immigration onto the Plains

42. Decline in Bison Population Bison YearPopulation 1800 40,000,000 1850 20,000,000 1865 15,000,000 -- ----- 1870 14,000,000 1880 395,000 1889 1,091

43. 1850: Comanche reported eating their horses and raiding New Mexico settlements for food. 1853: Cheyenne and Arapaho reported spending half the year in a state of starvation. Early Reports of Indian Food Shortages:

44. Increasing hunting pressure on bison led to a greater “massing” of bison herds and to increased local variation in bison availability. * * * * * This resulted in reduced access to bison for some Plains Indian groups.

45. Size of Herd Sightings Increased with Time

46. Causes of Decline in Bison Numbers: 1.Overhunting 2.Grazing competition 3.Diseases 4.Predation 5.Climate

47. Structural Changes: 1.Evolution of independent family 2.Increase in polygyny 3.Brideprice inflation 4.Emerging class differentiation 5.Increasing warfare 6.Evolution of political-military alliances 7.Increasing importance of military societies

48. "There were many brave and successful warriors of the Cheyenne who never went on …(scalping expeditions)…, who on their war journeys tried to a void coming in close contact with enemies. Such men went to war for the sole purpose of increasing their possessions by capturing horses: that is, they carried on war as a business--for profit. Some of these men who possessed high reputation for courage, success, and general well-doing-- made it their boast that they never killed a man, and perhaps never counted coup. --George Grinnell

49. "A Plains Indian with only one wife would always be poor, but it is a fine sight to see one of those big men among the Blackfeet, who has two or three lodges, five or six wives, twenty or thirty children, and fifty to a hundred head of horses; for his trade amounts to upward of $2,000 a year, and I assure you such a man has a great deal of dignity about him." --Charles Larpenteur Increase in Polygyny:

50. "In contrast to an ondei son, …(a lower rank son)… has had to think first of economic returns and secondarily of brave deeds, of coup counts.... Given a situation in which an enemy has fallen from (his) horse, the young …(lower rank)… warrior is torn between counting coup and riding after the enemy's horse. The rich man's decision is much simpler; he counts coup." --Mishkin (1940) Emerging Class Differentiation:

51. "A man could not even court a girl unless he had proved his courage. That is one reason why so many were so anxious to win good war records. They were all afraid of what people, and especially the women, would say if they were cowardly. The women even had a song they would sing about a man whose courage had failed him. 'If you are afraid when you charge, turn back. The desert women will eat you.' It was hard to go into a fight, and they were often afraid, but it was worse to turn back and face the women." --John Stands-in-Timber Enculturation of Martial Values:

52. Plains Indians generally believed that buffalo were supernatural in origin and existed in limitless numbers underground. A Bison Calling Ceremony was performed each year to coax them from their underground shelters.

53. “In 1881, representatives of many tribes assembled on the North Fork of the Red River for the Kiowa Sun Dance where a Kiowa shaman named Buffalo Coming Out vowed to call on the herds to re-emerge from the ground. The Kiowa believed the bison had gone into hiding in the earth, and they still call a peak in the Wichita Mountains "Hiding Mountain."

54. Sioux Plains Indian Alliances: Blackfoot Assiniboine- Cree Mandan-Hidatsa Sioux

55. I have to stop now!