1. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. PowerPoint Presentations for Philip G. Zimbardo Robert L. Johnson Vivian McCann Prepared by Beth M. Schwartz Randolph College This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Seventh Edition

2. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Chapter 6 Thinking and Intelligence

3. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Thinking is a cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations, such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts. What Are the Components of Thought?

4. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. What Are the Components of Thought? Thinking Cognitive process in which the brain uses information from the senses, emotions, and memory to create and manipulate mental representations such as concepts, images, schemas, and scripts Result Reasoning, imagining, judging, deciding, problem solving, expertise, and creativity

5. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Concepts Mental groupings of similar objects, ideas, or experiences. Natural concepts represent objects and events from direct experience. Prototypes are the most representative examples of a conceptual category. Artificial concepts are defined by rules. We organize the bulk of our declarative memories into concept hierarchies.

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7. Imagery and Cognitive Maps Visual imagery adds complexity and richness to our thinking. Thinking with sensory imagery can be useful in problem solving. Cognitive maps are a cognitive representation of a physical space.

8. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Thought and the Brain Different thoughts and actions make different parts of the brain “light up” on brain scans. Event-Related Potentials Brain waves shown on an EEG in response to stimulation MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Identifies brain regions that become active during various mental tasks

9. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Frontal Lobe Control Frontal Lobe is particularly important for coordinating brain activity by: Keeping track of the episode (situation) Understanding the context (meaning) Responding to a specific stimulus The frontal lobe is also involved in intuition: that is, making judgments without consciously reasoning.

10. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Schemas and Scripts Help you Know What to Expect Schema A cluster of related concepts that provides content and expectations about the features likely to be found when you encounter familiar people, situations, images, and ideas Script A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings

11. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Good thinkers not only have a repertoire of effective strategies, called algorithms and heuristics—they also know how to avoid the common impediments to problem solving and decision making. What Abilities Do Good Thinkers Possess?

12. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Problem Solving Successful problem solvers are skilled at: Identifying the problem Selecting a strategy

13. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Selecting a Strategy Algorithms Problem-solving procedures or formulas Guarantee a correct outcome if applied correctly Heuristics Cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks Do not guarantee a correct solution

14. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Heuristics Useful heuristics include: Working backward Searching for analogies Breaking a big problem into smaller problems

15. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Working Backwards

16. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Obstacles to Problem Solving Mental Set Tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem Functional Fixedness Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose; a type of mental set Self-Imposed Limitations Using unnecessary restrictions; not thinking “outside the box”

17. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Unscramble These Words: nelin ensce sdlen lecam slfal dlchi neque raspe klsta nolem dlsco hsfle naorg egsta

18. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Unscrambled Words linen scene lends camel falls child queen pears talks melon colds shelf groan gates The algorithm you used to solve the first column probably kept you from seeing the multiple solutions for the words in the second column.

19. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Nine-Dot Problem Without lifting your pen from the page, can you connect all nine dots with only four lines?

20. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Nine-Dot Problem Without lifting your pen from the page, can you connect all nine dots with only four lines?

21. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice

22. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Makes us pay attention to events that confirm our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts them Tyranny of Choice

23. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice The tendency, after learning about an event, to “second guess” or believe that we could have predicted the events in advance

24. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate on a completely irrelevant quantity

25. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice Faulty heuristic strategy based on presumption that, once people or events are categorized, they shares all the features of other members in that category

26. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice Faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based on the availability of vivid mental images of the event

27. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Judging and Making Decisions Confirmation Bias Hindsight Bias Anchoring Bias Representativeness Bias Availability Bias Tyranny of Choice The impairment of effective decision making when one is confronted with an overwhelming number of choices

28. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. On Becoming a Creative Genius What produces extraordinary creativity? Knowledge; expertise Aptitude (innate potentials) Personality characteristics independence, intense interest in a problem, willingness to restructure, preference for complexity, need for stimulating interaction

29. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. On Becoming a Creative Genius The role of intelligence: Low intelligence inhibits creativity (exception: savants). High intelligence does not necessarily produce creativity.

30. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. On Becoming an Expert Differences between experts and novices: Knowledge and how it is organized; “tricks of the trade” Considerable practice

31. Defining Intelligence The mental capacity to acquire knowledge, reason, and solve problems effectively. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

32. How is Intelligence Measured? Intelligence testing has a history of controversy, but most psychologists now view intelligence as a normally distributed trait that can be measured by performance on a variety of tasks.

33. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Founding of the Intelligence Test In 1904, a new French law required all children to attend school. Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon Developed a test to identify students needing remedial help Measured current performance and not a measure of innate intelligence Emphasized training and opportunity could affect intelligence Constructed the test empirically

34. Sample Items from the First Binet-Simon Test Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

35. How is Intelligence Measured? The Binet-Simon Test calculated a child’s mental age (MA) and compared it to his or her chronological age (CA). MA: average age at which individuals achieve a particular score CA: number of years since birth (age) The test determined that remedial help was needed when one’s MA was two years behind one’s CA.

36. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. How is Intelligence Measured? Binet-Simon test in America: Lewis Terman, Stanford University Stanford-Binet test became a popular instrument in clinical psychology, psychiatry, and educational counseling. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is the most respected of the new American tests of intelligence. Now measures intelligence quotient (IQ) (Stern) IQ=(MA/CA)*100

37. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Calculating IQs “on the Curve” The original IQ calculation was abandoned in favor of standard scores based on the normal distribution. Normal Distribution Bell-shaped curve describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population Normal Range Scores falling near the middle of a normal distribution

38. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Normal Distribution of IQ Scores among a Large Sample

39. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Exceptional Child Mental Retardation Often conceived as representing the lowest 2 percent of the IQ range; the current view deemphasizes IQ scored and focuses on practical abilities Giftedness Often conceived as representing the upper 2 percent of the IQ range

40. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Is Intelligence One or Many Abilities? Some psychologists believe that intelligence comprises one general factor, g, while others believe intelligence is a collection of distinct abilities.

41. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychometric Theories of Intelligence Psychometrics is the field of mental measurement in which psychologists developed: IQ tests Personality tests The SAT Spearman’s G Factor: a general ability Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

42. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Cognitive Theories of Intelligence Intelligence goes beyond vocabulary, logic, problem solving, and skills related to success in school. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Gardner’s Seven Intelligences

43. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Practical Intelligence Analytical Intelligence (Logical Reasoning) Creative Intelligence

44. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Ability to cope with the environment; “street smarts” Practical Intelligence Analytical Intelligence Creative Intelligence

45. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Ability measured by most IQ tests; includes the ability to analyze problems and find correct answers Practical Intelligence Analytical Intelligence Creative Intelligence

46. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory Form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts; involves insight and creativity Practical Intelligence Analytical Intelligence Creative Intelligence

47. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Naturalistic Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Musical

48. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Often measured on IQ tests by vocabulary and tests of reading comprehension Naturalistic

49. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic Logical-Mathematical Measured on most IQ tests with analogies, math problems, and logic problems Linguistic

50. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic Linguistic Spatial Ability to form and manipulate mental images of objects and to think about their relationships in space

51. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic Linguistic Spatial Musical Ability to perceive, compose, and appreciate musical patterns of rhythms and pitches Spatial

52. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Linguistic Spatial Musical Spatial Musical Ability for controlled movement and coordination Bodily-Kinesthetic Naturalistic

53. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Linguistic SpatialSpatial Naturalistic Ability to classify living things as members of diverse groups and recognize subtle changes in one’s environment

54. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic Linguistic Spatial Musical Spatial Naturalistic Musical Ability for controlled movement and coordination Bodily-Kinesthetic Naturalistic

55. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic Linguistic Spatial Musical Spatial Naturalistic Musical Naturalistic Ability to understand other people’s intentions, emotions, motives and actions, as well as to work effectively with others Interpersonal

56. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Spatial Musical Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic Linguistic Spatial Musical Spatial Naturalistic Musical Naturalistic InterpersonalInterpersonal Intrapersonal Emotional intelligence Interpersonal

57. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Cultural Definitions of Intelligence Cross-cultural psychologists have shown that “intelligence” has different meanings in different cultures.

58. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. African Concepts of Intelligence Not the same as Western assumptions In rural Kenya, children with the greatest practical intelligence skills scored lower on traditional IQ tests. In Buganda, intelligence is associated with slow and thoughtful responses. In Niger, intelligence is a combination of social skills and good memory.

59. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. The Question of Animal Intelligence Do animal “tricks” demonstrate true thinking and intelligence? Jane Goodall’s research with chimps indicated forethought and planning Are human abilities unique? Theory of mind: Ability to know thatour own thoughts differ from someone else’s thoughts.

60. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Language of the Apes Gardners’ research with chimp, Washoe: Sign 160 words Put “words” in “sentences” Kanzi, a bonobo Sign 500 words Responded to human vocal language Koko, a gorilla Signed lies “Swearing” at her handler in ASL

61. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences among Groups? While most psychologists agree that both heredity and environment affect intelligence, they disagree on the source of IQ differences among racial and social groups.

62. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences among Groups? Hereditarian arguments maintain that intelligence is substantially influence by genetics. Environmental approaches argue that intelligence can be dramatically shaped by influences such as: Health Economics Education

63. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Correlation of IQ Scored with Genetic Relationship

64. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Heritability and Group Differences Heritability Amount of trait variation within a group that can be attributed to genetic differences

65. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Heritability and Group Differences Research with twins and adopted children shows genetic influences on a wide range of attributes, including intelligence. Research has also shown that racial and class differences in IQ scores can be eliminated by environmental changes. Adoption Studies Social Class Head Start