1. Coming up: Quiz Friday: EFP chapters 9,13,15(minus section on Hydrogen) Test 2: Monday, October 29

2. The ocean as a heat engine There can be a 20° difference between ocean surface temps and the temp at 1000m The surface acts as the heat source, the deeper cold water acts as a heat sink. Temperature differences are very steady Florida, Puerto Rico, Hawaii and other pacific islands are well suited to take advantage of this idea. Called OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion)

3. Types of Ocean heat engines Closed cycle system Heat from warm seawater causes a fluid like ammonia to be evaporated in an evaporator Expanding vapor rotates a turbine connected to an electric generator. Cold seawater is brought up and cools the ammonia vapor in a condenser. This liquid returns to the evaporator and the process repeats.

4. Types of OTECs Open Cycle Systems Working fluid is the seawater. Warm seawater is brought into a partial vacuum. In the vacuum, the warm seawater boils and the steam drives a turbine The steam enters a condenser, where it is cooled by cold seawater brought up form below and it condenses back into liquid and is discharged into the ocean.

5. Boiling water in a vacuum The boiling point of any liquid depends upon temperature and pressure. Boiling occurs when the molecules in the liquid have enough energy to break free from surrounding molecules If you reduce the pressure, you reduce the amount of energy needed for the molecules to break free. Creating a vacuum reduces the air pressure on the molecules and lowers the boiling point.

6. OTECs Carnot Efficiency is low, only about 7% Net efficiency even lower, only about 2.5% Low efficiencies require large water volumes to produce appreciable amount of electricity For 100 mW output, you would need 25 X 10 6 liters/sec of warm and cold water. For a 40 mW plant, a 10 meter wide intake pipe is needed. This is the size of a traffic tunnel.

7. History of OTECs Jacques d ‘Arsonval in 1881 first proposed the idea Completed by his student, Georges Claude in 1930. (Claude also invented the neon lightbulb) Claude built and tested the first OTEC system Not much further interest until the energy crisis of the 1970s. In the 1970s, US DOE financed large floating OTEC power plant to provide power to islands One was built in Hawaii. Little further support

8. OTEC Plant on Keahole Point, Hawaii

9. Other uses for OTEC plants Generate Hydrogen for use as a clean fuel source Generate fertilizer from biological nutrients that are drawn up from the ocean floor in the cold water intake. Source of ocean water to be used as drinking water via desalination (taking out the salt).

10. Tidal Energy Most of the energy sources we have been discussing derived their energy from the sun. Tides are driven by gravity Gravity is a force that exists between any two objects based upon their mass and the distance between them F g = GmM/R 2 where M and m are the masses of the two objects, R is the distance between them and G is the gravitational constant = 6.67300 × 10 -11 m 3 kg -1 s -2

11. Tides So the moon and Earth exert a force of gravity on each other. The motion of the moon around the Earth counteracts the Earth’s pull, so the moon does not fall into the Earth. The moon’s pull on the Earth causes any material that can flow on the Earth’s surface, like large bodies of water, to pile up underneath the moon. See we do understand the tides!!!

12. Tides The sun also causes tides the Earth, though the effect is small, unless the sun and moon line up and work together (spring tide) or are at right angles to each other and work against each other (neap tides). In areas where there are natural basins on the coastline, water flows in and out of these basins. So there are regular, predictable motions in the oceans which could be used as an energy source.

13. Capturing Tidal Power Dams or barrage with gates are usually built across the mouth of basins This allows the current to be directed into the turbines and enhances the effect.

14. Rance River Tidal Power station in France

15. Current and Future tidal power stations Rance River, France 240Mw White sea, Russia 1 MW Annapolis River, Nova Scotia, Canada, 18mW Two most favorable sites in the US: Cook Inlet and Bristol Bay in Alaska and Bay of Funday which covers the Northeastern US and southeastern Canada. Development of the Bay of Funday would provide 15,000mW to the northeastern US and 15,000mW to Canada

16. Bay of Fundy

17. Power Power: * P = Cp x 0.5 x ρ x A x V³ Cp is the turbine coefficient of performance P = the power generated (in watts) ρ = the density of the water (seawater is 1025 kg/m³) A = the sweep area of the turbine (in m²) V³ = the velocity of the flow cubed (i.e. V x V x V)

18. Environmental Issues alters the flow of saltwater in and out of estuaries, which changes the hydrology and salinity and possibly negatively affects the marine mammals that use the estuaries as their habitat Some species lost their habitat due to La Rance’s construction, but other species colonized the abandoned space, which caused a shift in diversity. Turbidity (the amount of matter in suspension in the water) decreases as a result of smaller volume of water being exchanged between the basin and the sea. This lets light from the Sun to penetrate the water further, improving conditions for the phytoplankton. The changes propagate up the food chain, causing a general change in the ecosystem. If the turbines are moving slowly enough, such as low velocities of 25-50 rpm, fish kill is minimalized and silt and other nutrients are able to flow through the structures. Tidal fences block off channels, which makes it difficult for fish and wildlife to migrate through those channels. Larger marine mammals such as seals or dolphins can be protected from the turbines by fences or a sonar sensor auto-breaking system that automatically shuts the turbines down when marine mammals are detected As a result of less water exchange with the sea, the average salinity inside the basin decreases, also affecting the ecosystem Estuaries often have high volume of sediments moving through them, from the rivers to the sea. The introduction of a barrage into an estuary may result in sediment accumulation within the barrage, affecting the ecosystem and also the operation of the barrage.

19. Innovative strategies East River in New York-tidal river – Plans for 30 underwater turbines to tap the rivers 4 knot tidal flow and produce 1mW – Already tested with a prototype, took 3 attempts. First two the blades were torn off by the currents. -If permits are approved, on schedule for a fall installation Tidal Lagoons – Artificial lagoons with high walls. – Lagoon fills and empties through apertures, turbines are spun and generate electricity – doesn’t disturb current environmental conditions as much and expands locations by only requiring large tidal variations

20. Wave Energy It is estimated that there is 2-3 million mW of energy in the waves breaking on the world coastlines, with energies derived ultimately form the wind In Great Britain alone, almost twice the current electricity demand breaks on the countries coastlines every day. A vast untapped resource, but how to harness it?

21. How are waves formed As wind blows along the surface of a body of water, a surface wave develops. As the wind blows, pressure and friction forces perturb the equilibrium of the water surface These forces transfer energy from the air to the water, forming waves. The water molecules actually move in circular motion When a wave can no longer support its top, it collapses or breaks. Usually happens when a wave reaches shallow water, such as near a coastline.

22. Harnessing the energy LIMPET (Land Installed Marine Powered Energy Transformer) Breakwater Design PowerBuoys Pelamis

23. LIMPET Takes the wave into a funnel and drives air pressure past two turbines, each of which turns a 250 kW generator. Installed on the island of Islay, off Scotland’s west coast.

24. Breakwater Installed where there would normally be a breakwater a series of layered ‘reservoirs’ up a carefully calculated slope. This is then converted to kinetic energy (by falling down), and this turns the turbine/generator. A 500m breakwater can produce respectable 150 kW generator capacity Only in design phase, non of these up and running yet

25. PowerBuoys In a permanent magnet linear generator buoy, an electric coil surrounds a magnetic shaft inside the buoy the magnetic shaft is anchored to the sea floor. When waves cause the coil to move up and down relative to the fixed magnetic shaft, voltage is induced and electricity is generated. Each buoy could potentially produce 250 kilowatts of power. A fleet of about 200 such buoys could power the business district of downtown Portland.

26. PELAMIS made of large semi- submerged sections, like a submarine cut into pieces the wave action makes the Pelamis bend between the sections. This bending action forces hydraulic pistons to move in the device and push fluid around generating a linear flow, which produces energy. A 1 sq kilometer farm could produce 30 Megawatts.

27. Geothermal Energy Based on the heat that naturally occurs in the Earth’s interior Since the Earth’s interior is hotter than the surface, this heat flows from the interior towards the surface. Heat is the result of decay of radioactive nuclei inside the Earth, heat left over from the formation of the Earth and heat from the friction of heavier material sinking towards the center. Earth’s core temperature is 7200 K, which is close to the temperature on the Sun’s surface.

28. Radioactive Decay the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and radiation. Most important source of heat inside the earth loss of energy results in an atom of one type (parent nuclide) transforming to an atom of a different type, (daughter nuclide). Eg: a carbon-14 atom (the "parent") emits radiation and transforms to a nitrogen-14 atom (the "daughter"). Inside the Earth, the main elements that decay are 235 U, 238 U 232 Th, 40 K. This is a random process on the atomic level, in that it is impossible to predict when a given atom will decay, but given a large number of similar atoms the decay rate, on average, is predictable.

29. Radioactive decay Alpha particle – He Nucleus Beta particle - High energy electron or positron

30. Thorium Decay

31. Uranium 238 decay

32. Geothermal Not a new idea Used the heat from inside the Earth for thousands of years for bathing (hot springs) and space heating. First electric power use was by Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal power generator on 4 July 1904 in Larderello, Italy. In 1958 New Zealand built a plant of its own. First geothermal power plant in the United States was made in 1922 by John D. Grant at The Geysers Resort Hotel. In 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal power plant in the United States at The Geysers. The original turbine installed lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 MW net power.

33. The Geysers The Geysers is a geothermal power field located 72 miles (116 km) north of San Francisco, California. It is the largest geothermal development in the world. It is currently outputting over 750 MW. It consists of 22 separate power plants that utilize steam from more than 350 producing wells.

34. Harnessing Geothermal Resources Hot Water Reservoirs Natural Steam reservoirs Geopressured Reservoirs Normal Geothermal Gradient Hot Dry Rock Molten Magma

35. Hot Water reservoirs Heated underground reservoirs Used for heating buildings, raising plants in greenhouses, drying crops, heating water for fish farms, or for industrial processes. Example of a direct use system – a well is drilled into a geothermal reservoir to provide a steady stream of hot water. – The water is brought up through the well, piping, a heat exchanger, and controls delivers the heat directly for its intended use. – A disposal system then either injects the cooled water underground or disposes of it in a surface storage pond.

36. Natural Steam Reservoirs Sources of natural steam, like the geysers previously discussed, used to drive a turbine. Hydrothermal reservoirs consist of a heat source covered by a permeable formation through which water circulates. Steam is produced when hot water boils underground and some of the steam escapes to the surface under pressure. Once at the surface, impurities and tiny rock particles are removed, and the steam is piped directly to the electrical generating station

37. Geopressurized reservoirs Geopressurized reservoirs are sedimentary formations containing hot water (brine-water saturated with salt) and methane gas. Could be a source of both power and natural gas

38. Normal geothermal gradient/Hot Dry Rock Natural geothermal gradient of about 30°/km exists. A geothermal heat pump system consists of pipes buried in the shallow ground near a building, a heat exchanger, and ductwork into the building. In winter, heat from the relatively warmer ground goes through the heat exchanger into the house. In summer, hot air from the house is pulled through the heat exchanger into the relatively cooler ground. Heat removed can be used as no-cost energy to heat water. Variation: Direct exchange geothermal heat pump: A heat pump without a heat exchanger, which circulates the working fluid through pipes in the ground. Hot Dry rock is the same idea, but in certain locations the gradient is much higher

39. US Geothermal Resources